Full text of "The spider book; a manual for the study of the spiders and their near relatives, the scorpions, pseudoscorpions, whip-scorpions, harvestmen, and other members of the class Arachnida, found in America north of Mexico, with analytical keys for their classification and popular accounts of their habits;"

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NRYCOMSTOCK

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THE SPIDER BOOK

WEB OF METARGIOPE TRIFASCIATA

57-

THE SPIDER BOOK

A MANUAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE SPIDERS AND
THEIR NEAR RELATIVES, THE SCORPIONS, PSEU-
DOSCORPIONS, WHIP-SCORPIONS, HARVESTMEN,
AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE CLASS ARACH-
NIDA, FOUND IN AMERICA NORTH OF MEXICO,
WITH ANALYTICAL KEYS FOR THEIR CLASSIFICA-
TION AND POPULAR ACCOUNTS OF THEIR HABITS

JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK

PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Garden City New York
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

1913

DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

translation into Foreign Languages,

including the Scandinavian

BURT GREEN WILDER

WHO FIRST AWAKENED MY INTEREST IN SPIDERS; AND WHO

THROUGHOUT AN INTIMATE ASSOCIATION OF MORE THAN

FORTY YEARS, FIRST AS MY TEACHER AND LATER

AS A COLLEAGUE, HAS NEVER WEARIED IN

HELPFUL ASSISTANCE, THI^ BOOK IS

AFFECTIONATE IV DEDICATED

PREFACE

The object of the work here offered to the public is to serve
as an introduction to the study of a much neglected group of
animals, the Arachnida. While the list of Americans who have
contributed to our knowledge of insects is a very long one, those
who have seriously studied the closely allied Arachnida in this
country barely number a score; and the publications of these
workers have been, of necessity, largely of a pioneer nature and
fragmentary. Comparatively little of that which has been pub-
lished is adapted to the needs of the beginning student.

There have appeared in this country, however, a few works
designed for beginners; among these are two small books by
Kmerton, "The Structure and Habits of Spiders," published in
1878, and "The Common Spiders of the United States," pub-
lished in 1902, two excellent works which have done much to
popularize a knowledge of spiders. The great work of McCook,
"American Spiders and Their Spinningwork" (1889-93), ls
well adapted to awaken an interest in this subject; but its rarity
and cost prevent its general use. The analytical tables published
by Banks in the American Naturalist, in the volumes for 1900,
1901, and 1905, have been very useful. A few writers, as Dr.
Wilder and Mrs. Treat, have published magazine articles on
particular species. This practically completes the list of popular
works on this subject published in this country.

The papers on the classification of American spiders are far
more numerous, and many of them have been published abroad;
so also, the works treating of the structure of spiders are many
and are largely foreign. A list of all of the publications quoted
in the following pages is given in an appendix.

In concluding this reference to the literature of the subject,
1 wish to make special mention of the work from which I have
derived more help than from any other; this is the " Histoire
Naturelle des Araignees," by Eugene Simon, published in Paris
(1802-1903).

Special acknowledgment is due to the authorities of Cornel'

vii

Pref

ace

University, whose liberal grants for the purchase of books and of
specimens have made possible the prosecution of my studies in
a satisfactory manner.

Important aid has been rendered by several specialists.
Mr. Peckham has determined specifically a considerable part of
the large collection of Attidae in the Cornell University museum.
Mr. Emerton has also determined many species of spiders. And
Mr. Banks has rendered assistance frequently throughout the
preparation of the work in the determination of both spiders and
other arachnids.

Several students, who have worked under my direction,
have contributed in an important way to the advancement of the
work; notably Prof. R. V. Chamberlin, by studies of the Lycosidae;
Prof. C. R. Crosby, by studies of the Erigoninae; Miss Effie
A. Read, by help in the preparation of the key to the genera of
the Attidae; Mr. R. A. Cushman, by studies of the external
reproductive organs of the Argiopidae; Dr. J. A. Nelson, by the
preparation of many palpi of male spiders; and Mr. J. T. Lloyd,
by testing and suggesting changes in some of the analytical
keys.

Early in the progress of the work on this book I had the good
fortune to secure, by purchase for Cornell University, the col-
lection of Dr. William H. Fox of Washington. This contained
nearly 250 named species of spiders; and as the identification of
the specimens had been confirmed by the late Dr. George Marx,
the collection formed a very important addition to the Cornell
University museum. And I am indebted to Doctor Fox for in-
formation regarding certain specimens in the collection made
by him.

Contributions of specimens have been received from many
persons; and large numbers of specimens have been received from
each of the following: Prof. C. R. Crosby, Mr. Paul Hayhurst,
and Dr. J. A. Nelson.

To Dr. B. G. Wilder I am indebted for my first interest
in spiders, acquired during my undergraduate days, and for
placing at my disposal, in later years, all of his notes on spiders.

The photographs from which a large part of the illustrations
were made were taken by myself, except in those cases where
credit to others is given. Some of the drawings, especially
those in the chapter on external anatomy, excepting those of

viii

Preface

the palpi of male spiders, were made by Mrs. Comstock; but
most of the drawings were made by Miss Anna C. Stryke.

The chapter on the external anatomy of spiders was prepared
primarily to explain the terms used in the following pages; but
it is hoped that it will also help to bring about a greater uni-
formity in the terms employed by writers on the Arachnida
than exists at present.

I lay aside this work, which has occupied all the time that
could be spared from my other duties for more than a decade,
with the hope that it will serve to render easier the entrance
into a field of study that is filled with interest and the hope
that it may stimulate others to carry on the study much farther
than 1 have been able to do.

John Henry Comstock.

Entomological Laboratory,
Cornell University,
March, 191 1.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PACE

Introduction xiii

I. Spiders and Their Relatives 3

1. The zoological position of the Arachnida . . 3

11. The characters of the Arachnida .... 9

in. The orders of the Arachnida 12

II. The External Characters of Spiders .... 95

The external anatomy of spiders .... 95

III. The Internal Anatomy of Spiders 137

IV. The Life of Spiders 177

1. Methods of study 177

11. The development of spiders 182

in. The food of spiders 185

iv. Means by which spiders obtain their prey . 186

v. The silk of spiders 187

vi. The types of webs of spiders 193

vii. The building of an orb web 196

viii. The nests of spiders 206

ix. The pairing of spiders 207

x. The motherhood of spiders 208

xi. The venom of spiders 213

xii. The aeronautic spiders 21 i

V. The Order Araneida or Spiders 218

VI. The Superfamily Avicularioidea or Tarantulas 22X

VII. The Superfamily Argiopcidea or True Spiders . 2^7

INTRODUCTION

Of all of our little neighbours of the fields there are none
that are more universally shunned and feared than spiders, and
few that deserve it less. There is a widespread belief that spiders
are dangerous, that they are liable to bite, and that their bites
are very venomous. Now this may be true of certain large species
that live in hot countries; but the spiders of the temperate regions
are practically harmless.

It is true, spiders bite and inject venom sufficient to kill an
insect into the wounds made by their fangs. But they are
exceedingly shy creatures, fearing man more than they are to
be feared. If an observer will refrain from picking up a spider
there is not the slightest danger of being bitten by one; and,
excepting perhaps a single uncommon species, no spider is known
in the northern United States whose bite would seriously affect
a human being.

On the other hand, spiders are exceedingly interesting sub-
jects for study; for some of the most remarkable exhibitions of
instinctive powers are presented by them. What product of
instinctive skill is more wonderful than the web of an orb-weaving
spider!

1 le who loves the out-of-doors will find the interest incident
to his walks greatly increased if he learns something of the habits
of spiders. Their webs are to be found everywhere; and those
of the different species differ greatly in structure, varying from
an irregular, tangled maze, as that of the common domestic
spider, to the wonderfully symmetrical nets of the garden-spiders.

If spiders did not occur in our fauna, and if the keepers
of a zoological garden were to bring from some remote part of
the world living examples of the little animals that spin from
their bodies threads of silk of different kinds, some dry and in-
elastic, some viscid and elastic, and some, as the hackled band
of Filistata, of wonderful complexity of structure, and with these
threads construct snares of surprising regularity for trapping
their prey, the presence of such marvellous animals would at-

Introduction

tract general attention, and we would make long journeys to see
them. Fortunately, however, this marvel can be seen at home by
any one that has eyes and will look.

While the web-building spiders are those that most often
attract attention, there are many that differ greatly from these
in habits; and the stratagems employed by these to escape their
enemies and to obtain their prey, in many cases, are scarcely
less wonderful than those of the web-building species. In a
word, the abundance of spiders, the great variations in the habits
of the different species, and the high development of instinctive
powers of many of them, render them exceedingly available for
purposes of study of animal behaviour, whether this study be pur-
sued by the lover of nature for his own enjoyment or by the teacher
who wishes to use it as a means of interesting young people in
the world about us and in training their powers of observation.

The structure of spiders also offers attractive fields for study.
This is especially true if attention be given to the correlation
of structure and habits. As we find here the most elaborate
spinning habits, so too we find here the most complicated organs
for the production and manipulation of the silk which is spun.
Some spiders are sedentary, either trapping their prey by snares
or lying in ambush for it; others, like wolves, stalk their prey;
some make use of any retreat that they find; while others dig
tunnels in the earth; of the burrowing species, some merely
strengthen the walls of their burrow with silk, leaving the entrance
a simple opening into the earth; some build a watch-tower or
turret about the entrance; and some close the entrance with a
cunningly constructed hinged door. In each case the structure
of the spider is specialized in a way that adapts it to its peculiar
mode of life.

Many of these correlations can be readily seen by the com-
paratively untrained observer. The short and stout legs of the
jumping spiders, the longer and more slender legs of the running
species, the extra claw on each foot of those that cling to webs,
the rakes of the chelicerae or jaws of the burrowing tarantulas,
the pearly lustre of the "night-eyes" of those that live in dark
places, and the protective colours of many species are all easily
observed adaptations to peculiar modes of life. And for the
trained observers many problems in the morphology of these
animals await solution.

xiv

Introduction

While the chief object of this book is to furnish an intro-
duction to the study of the structure, classification, and habits
of spiders, it has seemed wise to include in it accounts of the near
relatives of spiders, of the other orders of the class Arachnida
to which the spiders belong. Some of these, as the harvestmen,
the mites, and the pseudoscorpions, are common in all parts of
our country, and will be observed by all students of spiders.
Others, as the scorpions and the whip-scorpions, abound in the
warmer parts of our country and will be found by those who study
there or who receive collections from the South. As no general
work treating of the North American representatives of all of the
orders of the Arachnida has been published, it is believed that
the account of them given here will be a welcome addition to
"The Spider Book."

THE SPIDER BOOK

CHAPTER

I: SPIDERS AND THEIR NEAR
RELATIVES

Class Arachnida

I.— THE ZOOLOGICAL POSITION OF THE ARACHNIDA

Spiders, scorpions, harvestmen, mites, and certain other
less familiar forms constitute a group of animals which is known
to zoologists as the Class Arachnida (A-rach'ni-da).

This is one of several classes of animals that agree in having
the body composed of a series of more or less similar rings or
segments, and in having some of these
segments furnished with jointed legs
(Fig. i). All the animals possessing
these characteristics are classed together
as the Arthropoda (Ar-throp'o-da),
which is one of the chief divisions or
phyla of the animal kingdom.

A similar segmented form of body
is found among worms; but these are
distinguished from the arthropods by
the absence of legs. It should be re-
membered that many animals com-
monly called worms, as the tomato-
worm, apple-worm, etc., are not true
worms, but are the larvae of insects, and
have legs (Fig. 2); the angle-worm is
the most familiar example of a true
worm.

The Phylum Arthropoda is the
largest of the phyla of the animal king-
dom, including many more species than all the other phyla taken
together. The more familiar of the classes included in it are the
six mentioned below. Besides these there are other classes,

FiK. 1. A SCORPION. ONE
OF THE ARTHROPODA

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

represented by less familiar animals, which also have the
body segmented and possess jointed legs. For an account of
the classes of arthropods not mentioned here, and for discussions
of the relations of the classes of arthropods to each other, the
reader is referred to more general works on zoology.

I. Class Crustacea (Crus-ta'ce-a). — The more familiar
representatives of the Crustacea are the cray-fishes, the lobsters,
the shrimps, and the crabs. Cray-fishes (Fig. 3) abound in our
brooks, and are often improperly called crabs. The lobsters,
the shrimps, and the true crabs live in the sea.

The Crustacea are essentially aquatic animals; a few of
them live in damp places on land, but most of them live in the
water. They breathe either through the general surface of the
body or by means of gills; they are never furnished with tracheae
as are nearly all other arthropods.

The Crustacea differ also from all other arthropods in having
two pairs of antennas. In many of them the head and the thorax,
the part of the body which bears the ambulatory legs, are united,
forming a region known as the cephalothorax; the region behind
the cephalothorax is the abdomen.

The examples named above are among the more conspicuous
members of the class; but many other smaller forms abound
both in the sea and in fresh water. Some of the more minute
fresh-water forms are almost sure to occur in any fresh-water
aquarium. In Fig. 4 are represented three of these, greatly
enlarged.

Among the Crustacea that live in damp places on land are
the sow-bugs, Oniscidcc (O-nis'ci-dae). These frequently occur
about water-soaked wood. One of them is represented in Fig. 5.

On the sea-coasts an immense number of species of Crustacea
occur.

II. Class Diplopoda (Di-plop'o-da). — This class includes
the millipedes. These are air-breathing arthropods in which
the head is distinct, and the remaining segments of the body
form a continuous region (Fig. 6). The most striking char-
acteristic is the fact that most of the body-segments bear each
two pairs of legs. As a rule, the body is not flattened as with the
centipedes, and the antennae are comparatively short and few-
jointed.

The millipedes live in damp places and feed on decaying

htj Hk>

Fig. 2. THE " CARAWAY-WORM,"
THE LARVA OF A BUTTERFLY

Fig. 3. A CRAY-FISH

Fig. 5. A SOW-BUG (Cylisticus con-
vexus) (after Sars)

Fig. 4. CRUSTACEA
a, Cypridopsis b, Cyclops c, Daphnia

Fig. 6. A MILLIPEDE
5

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

vegetable matter. They are harmless, except that occasionally
they feed on growing plants.

III. Class Chilopoda (Chi-lop'o-da). — The Chilopoda in-
cludes the centipedes. These, like the millipedes, are air-breathing

and have an elongated body composed of
similar segments (Fig. 7). They can be
distinguished from the millipedes by the
fact that each segment bears only a single
pair of legs. The body is usually flat-
tened, and the antenna? are usually long
and many-jointed.

. The centipedes are predaceous, feed-
ing on insects; they are common under
stones and other objects lying on the
ground. Many species are venomous.
The poison glands open through the claws
of the first pair of legs, which are bent
forward so as to act with the mouth-parts.
These creatures abound in all parts of
the United States; those that are found
in the North are comparatively small, and
Fig. 7. a centipede rarely, if ever, inflict serious injury to man;

but the larger species, which occur in warmer regions, are said to

be extremely venomous.

Formerly the millipedes and the

centipedes were grouped together as the

Class Myriapoda (Myr-i-ap'o-da); and

this grouping is retained in many recent

zoologies.

IV. Class Hexapoda (Hex-ap'o-da). —
The class Hexapoda comprises the various

orders of insects. The members of this class
are air-breathing arthropods, with distinct
head, thorax, and abdomen. They have
one pair of antennas, three pairs of legs,
and usually one or two pairs of wings in
the adult state (Fig. 8).

Among the more familiar examples of insects are grass-
hoppers, dragon-flies, butterflies, moths, and beetles.
There are so many excellent popular works treating

Fig. 8. AN INSECT; A
WASP, WITH THE HEAD,
THORAX AND ABDO-
MEN SEPARATED
/, thorax a, abdomen

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

of insects that it is not necessary to dwell on this class
here.

V. Class Pal^eostracha (Pa-lae-os'tra-cha). — This class
is composed almost entirely of extinct forms, there being living
representatives of only a single order, the Xipbosura (Xiph-os-u'ra).
And this order is nearly extinct; for of it there remains only the
genus Limulus (Lim'u-lus), represented by only five known
species.

The members of this genus are known as king-crabs or
horseshoe-crabs; the former name is
suggested by the great size of some
of the species, the latter, by the
shape of the cephalothorax (Fig. 9).

The king-crabs are marine;
they are found on our Atlantic
Coast from Maine to Florida, in the
West Indies, and on the eastern
shores of Asia. They are found in
from two to six fathoms of water
on sandy and muddy shores; they
burrow a short distance in the sand
or mud and feed chiefly on worms.
The single species of our coast is
Limulus polyphenols.

In Limulus the body-segments
are grouped in two regions, cephalo-
thorax and abdomen ; the abdomen
is terminated by a long, strong
spine. The cephalothorax bears six
pairs of appendages; these correspond to the six pairs of append-
ages of Arachnida described later; and, as in the Arachhida,
none of the appendages are jaw-like. The food is crushed by
the basal part of the leg-like appendages, which are situated
round the mouth. The abdomen also bears six pairs of append-
ages; these are plate-like and the members of each pair are
united at the base.

The first pair of abdominal appendages form a nearly semi-
circular plate, which nearly covers the following appendages. On
the posterior side of this plate are two openings, the outlets of
the reproductive organs. Each of the following pairs of append-

Fig. 9. A HORSESHOE-CRAB

(Limulus) (after Leuckart)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

ages bears a pair of gills. These are termed book-gills, each
being composed of many thin plates, like the leaves of a book.

In its more general characteristics, Limulus is closely allied
to the Arachnida, except that its respiration is aquatic. So
close is this resemblance in structure to the Arachnida that many
zoologists, and among them some of those who have studied
Limulus most carefully, regard the Xiphosura as an order of
the Arachnida. A more conservative view is to regard the
Palaeostracha and the Arachnida as two closely allied but dis-
tinct classes.

The most familiar of the fossil representatives of the Palae-
ostracha are the Trilobites.

VI. Class Arachnida (A-rach'ni-da). — The members of
this class are air-breathing arthropods, in which the head and
thorax are usually grown together, forming a cephalothorax,
which have four pairs of legs, and which apparently have no
antennas. The characteristics of the Arachnida are more fully
discussed in the next section of this chapter.

TABLE OF CLASSES OF ARTHROPODS

The more striking of the distinguishing characters of the
six classes of arthropods mentioned above can be stated in a
tabular form as follows:
A. With two pairs of antennae and at least five pairs of legs;
respiration aquatic. Crustacea

AA. With one pair of antennae or apparently with none; respira-
tion, except in Limulus, aerial. The number of legs
varies from six to many.
With one pair of feeler-like antennae.
C. With more than three pairs of legs, and without wings.
D. With two pairs of legs on some of the body-segments.

Diplopoda
DD. With only one pair of legs on each segment.

Chilopoda
CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings
in the adult state. Hexapoda

BB. Apparently without antennae.

C. Respiration aquatic. Pal^ostracha

CC. Respiration aerial. Arachnida

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

II —THE CHARACTERS OF THE ARACHNIDA

At first sight, the Arachnida appear to be distinguished from
all other air-breathing arthropods by the absence of antennae;
for they have no feelers projecting forward from the head. But
it has been found that a pair of nippers, the chelicera?, with
which the head is armed, correspond to the second antennas
of Crustacea. Vestiges of the first antennae have been observed
in the embryos of certain arachnids; but these appendages either
disappear completely before birth or, according to the views
of some writers, become consolidated to form the upper lip or
rostrum. We can say, therefore, that in the Arachnida the first
pair of antennae are wanting as distinct appendages, and
the second antennae are modified so as to form prehensile
organs.

Most Arachnida differ from all other air-breathing arthropods
in having the segments of which the head and thorax are composed
consolidated so as to form a single region, the cephalothorax ;
but in certain generalized forms the thoracic segments are more
or less distinct. In most cases the cephalothorax and abdomen
are distinct; but in the mites the entire body forms a single region.

In the scorpions and in some other forms the abdomen i,
divided into two portions; a broad preabdomen, and a slenderer
tail-like division, the postabdomen.

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of the Arachnida
is the fact that in this class the combined head and thorax bears
only six pairs of appendages; this, however, is also true of the
Palaeostracha, which some writers class with the Arachnida.
The nearest approach to this condition among air-breathim*
arthropods is found in the insects, where the head and thorax
bear seven pairs of appendages.

Another striking characteristic of the Arachnida, which,
however, is also possessed by the Palaeostracha, is the absence
of true jaws. In other arthropods one or more pairs of append-
ages are jaw-like in form and are used exclusively as jaws; but
in the Arachnida the prey is crushed either by the prehensile
antennae alone (as in Kanenia) or by these organs and other
more or less leg-like appendages. The arachnids suck the blood
of their victims by means of a sucking stomach; they crush

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

their prey, but do not masticate it so as to swallow the solid
parts.*

The Arachnida are air-breathing. Two forms of respira-
tory organs exist in this class: first, the book-lungs; and second,
the tracheae. Both of these are described in the chapter on the
internal anatomy of spiders. In the mode of respiration, the
Arachnida differ from the Palaeostracha, with which they agree
in the number of cephalothoracic appendages and in the absence
of true jaws.

The reproductive organs open near the base of the abdomen,
on the ventral side. In this respect the Arachnida resemble
Limulus, the millipedes, and the Crustacea, and differ from the
centipedes and insects, in which the reproductive organs open
near the caudal end of the body.

The eyes are simple, that is, each eye is covered with a
single cornea, not facetted like the compound eyes of insects.
The number varies from two to twelve, and some species are
eyeless.

The eyes vary greatly in their position. In some forms
(Avicularioidea) they are borne on an ocular tubercle near the
middle of the head. In this case there are two large round
median eyes, one on each side of the median line; on each side of
the median eyes, on the base of the tubercle, are three lateral
eyes, which differ in size, shape, and appearance, both from the
median eyes and from one another. This is probably the primi-
tive arrangement of the eyes; but in most forms, the lateral eyes
have wandered off laterally on to the cephalic lobes, which con-
stitute the lateral portions of the head, and the optic tubercle
is obliterated (Bernard '96). f A similar migration of the paired
ocelli of insects has been pointed out by the writer (Comstock
and Kochi '02). In some of the more generalized insects, the
three ocelli are borne by the front; but in most insects they
have wandered off from this sclerite into the epicranial suture
or even on to the vertex, which is developed from the cephalic
lobes of the embryo.

Of the six pairs of appendages borne by the cephalothorax,
in most forms, the first two pairs are used for seizing and crushing

•For possible exceptions to this see accounts of the habits of the Solpugida and of the Phalan-
gida, in the next chapter.

tThc complete titles of works referred to in parentheses in the text a(e given in the bibliog-
raphy at the end of the volume.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

prey, and the last four, as legs; but there is considerable lack
of uniformity in this respect. Owing to this lack of uniformity
in the function of some of the appendages in different orders
some writers designate the six pairs of appendages by numbers;
but the older authors gave special names to the first and second
pairs, and termed the last four pairs legs. The older nomen-
clature is so well established that it does not seem wise to attempt
to change it, notwithstanding that in one order the second pair
of appendages function as legs, and in another order, the third
pair of appendages function as feelers.

The first pair of appendages are termed the chelicerce (che-
Iic'e-rae). They are situated in front of the mouth; all other
appendages are postoral, except perhaps the second pair.

The second pair of appendages are the pedipalps (ped'i-
palps). These are situated immediately behind the mouth, or
one at each side of it. They are always more or less leg-like
in form; and in the Microthelyphonida they function as legs.

Following the pedipalps are the four pairs of legs. In the
Pcdipalpida, the first pair of legs function as feelers.

Usually the basal parts of the pedipalps bear masticatory

Fig. 10. TARSAL CLAWS OF A SPIDER

Fig. it. A CHELA
oi \ PEDIPALPOF
A SCORPION

ridges for crushing the prey. Sometimes the
crushing organ is a distinct sclerite borne
by the basal segment of the pedi-
palp; it is then known as an endite.
Masticatory ridges or endites are sometimes
borne by the first or the first and second pairs of legs.
The last segment of an appendage may bear claws, which
resemble more or less the tarsal claws of insects. (Fig. 10.) In
other cases the last segment itself is claw-like; in this case a pincer-

- i

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

like organ is formed. Two types of pincers exist in the Arach-
nida. The first is known as a chela; an illustration of this is a
great claw of scorpions. A chela is formed by the next to the
last segment of an appendage being prolonged on one side so as
to oppose the last segment (Fig. n). An appendage bearing a
chela is said to be chelate. In descriptions of chelate claws, the
last segment is termed the movable claw of the chela; and the
prolongation of the next to the last segment opposed to this,
the fixed claw of the chela.

Another type of pincers is produced when the last segment

of an appendage is claw-like and
is folded back into a groove in
the next to the last segment, like
the blade of a pocket-knife into
the handle (Fig. 12). An append-
age bearing a pincer of this type
may be said to be uncate.

These two types of pincers are

not distinct, intermediate forms

being present. Such intermediate

forms may be termed semichelate;

the pedipalps of Mastigoproctus are

illustrationsofthesemichelatetype.

A detailed account of the structure of spiders is given in the

following chapters; it is not necessary, therefore, to discuss

further the anatomy of arachnids in this place.

III.— THE ORDERS OF THE ARACHNIDA

According to the classification that is most generally accepted,
the class Arachnida is divided into nine orders. One of these
orders, the Ricinulei, is not represented in North America, and,
therefore is not discussed here.

The eight orders included in our fauna can be separated
by the following table.

TABLE OF THE ORDERS OF THE ARACHNIDA

A. Abdomen distinctly segmented.

B. Abdomen with a tail-like prolongation.

Fig. 12. AN UNCATE CHELICERA

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

C. Tail stout and armed with a sting at the end; first pair
of legs not greatly elongated; a pair of comb-like ap-
pendages on the lower side of the second abdominal
segment in the adult. (Scorpions) P. 21.

Scorpionida

CC. Tail slender, usually whiplash-like, without a sting;

first pair of legs much longer than the others; without

comb-like appendages on the abdomen.

D. Body of minute size being less than one tenth inch

in length (Micro-whip-scorpions) P. 13.

MlCROTHELYPHONIDA

DD. Body of moderate or large size. (Whip-scorpions).
P. 16. Pedipalpida

BB. Abdomen without a tail-like prolongation.

C. Palpi with pincer-like claws. (Pseudoscorpions) P. 39.

PSEUDOSCORPIONIDA

CC. Palpi without pincer-like claws.

D. Abdomen joined to the thorax by a slender stalk;
front legs greatly elongated and with whiplash-like
tarsi. (Whip-scorpions) P. 16. Pedipalpida

DD. Abdomen broadly joined to the thorax.

E. Legs usually very long and slender; thorax not

distinctly divided into three segments. (Har-

vestmen) P. 53. Phalangida

EE. Legs moderately long; head distinct from thorax;

thorax distinctly divided into three segments.

P. 32. Solpugida

AA. Abdomen unsegmented.

B. Abdomen joined to the cephalothorax by a short, narrow
stalk. (Spiders) P. 39. Araneida

BB. Abdomen fused with the cephalothorax. (Mites) P. 8.

ACARINA

Order MlCROTHELYPHONIDA*

The Micro-Whip-scorpions

The tiny creatures constituting the order Microthelvphonida
(Mi-cro-thel-y-phon'i-da) bear striking resemblance in the form

This order was established under the above name by Grassi ('86). Later Thorell
changed th.' name to Palpigradi; but this latter name cannot be justly accepted, although it is
shorter and equallyappropriate-

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

of the body to members of the Thelyphonidae (p. 18); it was
this that suggested the name of the order. They differ
greatly from the whip-scorpions, however, both in size and
in structure; the larger of the species found, as yet, measure
less than one tenth of an inch in length, including the tail-like
appendage.

The form of the body and the more general features of the

appendages are shown in Fig.
13. The thorax appears to
consist of only two segments
when seen from above, the
tergum of the segment bearing the
fourth pair of appendages being a
part of the carapace. On the
ventral aspect of the cephalothorax
there are four sternites; a larger one
corresponding to the pedipalps and
the first pair of legs, and three smaller
ones corresponding to the second, third,
and fourth pairs of legs respectively. The
abdomen is distinctly segmented, and is
terminated by a slender appendage con-
sisting of about fifteen segments.

Eyes are wanting. The mouth is a
mere slit in an oral prominence, which is
situated far forward so that it is partly
between the bases of the chelicerse; in other words, the mouth
has not migrated so far back as in other arachnids. None of the
appendages are furnished with either masticatory ridges or
endites. This is the simplest oral apparatus found in the arach-
nida.

The chelicerae are chelate, and are the only chelate append-
ages. The pedipalps are leg-like and are terminated by a pair
of claws, as are the legs; or to express it differently, the pedipalps
have not been modified into organs for some other function than
locomotion, as is the case with the more specialized arachnids.
It would be correct, therefore, to say that these creatures possess
five pairs of legs; but to avoid confusion it is better to restrict
the term legs to the last four pairs, as is done in describing other
arachnids. Each pedipalp consists of nine segments.

Fig. 13. K(EN-
ENIA WHEE-
LERI (after
Wheeler)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The first pair of legs, using the term in the restricted sense
just indicated, are the longest of the appendages, and resemble
the corresponding appendages of the whip-scorpions in having
the tarsi broken up into several segments, each of these legs
consisting of twelve segments. The second and third pairs of
legs are seven-jointed; the fourth, eight-jointed.

The respiratory organs, according to the investigation of
Miss Rucker foi), consist of three pairs of lung-sacs, which
are situated in segments four, five and six of the abdomen, with
their corresponding orifices on the ventral surface. These sacs
are evidently evaginated through the internal blood-pressure,
and invaginated by dorso-ventral muscles, a pair for each
pair of sacs. When invaginated, the sacs appear like
diminutive tracheae if stretched by the retractor muscles;
but if the latter become relaxed, allowing the sac to
flatten dorso-ventrally and wrinkle, they appear like diminutive
book-lungs.

The external reproductive organs are quite complicated;
they are borne by the second and third abdominal segments.

It should be borne in mind that this somewhat detailed
characterization of the Microthelyphonida is based upon the
single known genus of the order; and that the discovery of other
genera may necessitate some modifications of it.

Family KCENENIIDiE (Kcen-e-ni'i-dae)

As yet only representatives of a single genus, Kanenia
(Koe-ne'ni-a) belonging to this order have been found. This is
represented in Texas by two species, which will doubtless be found
in other parts of the South; and probably other species will also
be discovered.

The genus is widely distributed, species having been found
in Italy, Bay of Siam, Chili, and Paraguay, as well as in this
country.

Kanenia lives under stones in company with insects of the
order Thysanura. The species are of a translucent white colour
except the blades of the chelicerae, which have the yellow tint
of thickened chitin. Excellent accounts of our species, Kanenia
wheeleri and Kanenia jlorencia, are given by Wheeler ('oo) and
Rucker ('01 and '03).

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Order PEDIPALPIDA*

The Whip-scorpions

These strange creatures are found in our country only in the
extreme southern part, they being tropical animals; but they are
distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific. In their general
form they bear some resemblance to scorpions; but they can be
easily distinguished from scorpions by the form of the pedipalps,
of the first pair of legs, and of the postabdomen.

The common name whip-scorpions was doubtless suggested

by the slender caudal appen-
dage of the Thelyphonidae
(Fig. 14); but it is almost as
appropriate for the forms
that lack this appendage, as
they have the tarsi of the
front legs broken up into
many small segments, which
gives this part of the leg
a whiplash-like appearance
(Fig. .8).

These arachnids are of
moderate or large size, none of them
being minute like the Microthely-
phonida. The abdomen is segment-
ed, and distinctly separate from the
thorax. In one family the carapace
is divided by transverse sutures; in
the other two families it is not so
divided. The chelicerae are two-
jointed and uncate; that is the second segment is claw-like and
folds back upon the end of the first segment. A remarkable
feature, in some members of the order if not all, is that the chelic-
erae are attached to the head by a thin membrane in such a way
as to be capable of being retracted into the head for a considerable
distance (Laurie '94). The pedipalps are very stout and are six-
jointed; they present the three types of claws, one in each of the

* The original form of this name was Pedipalpi, a family name proposed by Latreille (1806); and
this forji is still r.-tained by many writers even though they rank the group as an order.

Fig. 14. MASTIGO-
PROCTUS GIGANTEUS

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

three families. The first pair of legs are elongated and are
modified into feelers, the tarsus being divided into many seg-
ments, the last of which has a rounded tip instead of claws.
The ambulatory organs are therefore reduced to three pairs.
The respiratory organs are book-lungs; there are two pairs of
these; they open on the posterior edge of the second and of the
third abdominal segments.

Among the more important recent general works on this order
is that of Kraepelin ('99) which treats of the classification of the
order and that of Borner ('04), which is anatomical.

The order includes three families, each of which is represented

in the United States; the families can be separated as follows:

A. Cephalothorax longer than broad with nearly parallel lateral

margins.

l7-

AA.

Carapace divided by a transverse suture which separates
off the part of the thorax bearing the third and fourth
pairs of legs; the caudal appendage consists of a single
segment, with or without a knob at the end. P

Shizonotid^e

Carapace not divided by a transverse

suture; the caudal appendage long and

many-jointed. P. 18. Thelyphonid/e

Cephalothorax broader than long, with

the lateral margin strongly arched. P. 19.

Tarantulid/e

Family SHIZONOTID^E (Shiz-o-not'i-dae)

Only a few representatives of this family
are known; but they are regarded with great
interest on account of the generalized condition
of the carapace, in which some of the transverse
sutures are retained (Fig. 15). The eyes are
wanting. Certain light-coloured areas of the
cuticula have been mistaken for vestiges of
lateral eyes; but Borner ('04) states that there is
no modification of the hypodermis below these
areas. The caudal appendage is short, either
unsegmented or, in certain exotic forms, with a knob-like seg-
ment at the end.

FiK. is. TRITHY-
RFl/S CAMBRTDGEI
(after Borner)

■7

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

A single species belonging to this family has been found in
the United States; this is Tritbyreus pentapeltis (Tri-thyr'e-us
pen-ta-pel'tis), which occurs in the desert regions of southern

California. Only a few specimens have

Q^-~--x been taken; the largest of these meas-
f \ ured less than one half inch in length.

Figure 16 represents some of the details
of structure of this species as given by
Cook ('99).

Family THELYPHONIDAEfThel-
y-phon'i-dae)

This family includes the tailed
whip-scorpions, those in which the
caudal end of the abdomen is furnished
with a slender, many-jointed appendage
(Fig. 14). In this family the carapace
is not divided by transverse sutures.
Eight eyes are present, two, the
median eyes, near the centre of the front
part of the head, and a group of three,
the lateral eyes, on each side farther back. The pedipalps are
stout and armed with tooth-like proc-
esses (Fig. 17). They are semichelate,
the projecting process of the fifth seg-
ment being much smaller than the sixth
segment which forms the other part of
the chela; in the ordinary chelate type
the opposite of this is the case. These
pedipalps are remarkably developed for
crushing the prey; they might be de-
scribed as plurichelate; for in addition
to the pincers formed by the fifth and
sixth segments, another pair is formed
by the fourth and fifth; and the second

segment bears a prominent semicircular process, armed with
strong teeth, which can be opposed to the third and fourth
segments. The chief use of this process of the second seg-
ment is to be opposed to the corresponding process of the other

Fig. 16. TRITHYREUS PEN-
TAPELTIS (after Cook), o, body
without appendages; b, carapace
more enlarged; c, caudal segments
lateral view

Fig. 17. THE PALPUS OF
MASTIGOPROCTUS

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

pedipalp. The first segments of the pedipalps meet on the
middle line on the ventral side of the head. The flexible tip
i f the first legs is composed of nine segments; and each of the
six ambulatory legs is furnished with two tarsal claws.

This family is represented in the United States by onlv
a single species, the giant whip-scorpion, Mastigoprodus giganteus
(Mas-ti-go-proc'tus gi-gan-te'us). This species measures when
full-grown from four to five inches in length. Figure 14 represents
one less than natural size. In some parts of the South they bear
the local name grampus, and are greatly feared on account of
their supposed venomous powers; but it is probable that there is
no foundation for this fear; for although it has been stated often
that their bites are poisonous, 1 can find no direct evidence that
this is true, and no poison glands have been found in this order.

This species burrows in sand under logs or other objects
lying on the ground; it doubtless feeds on any insects that it can
capture.

Family TARANTULIDiE (Tar-an-tu'li-dae)

This family includes the tailless whip-scorpions. These
resemble the tailed whip-scorpions in the consolidated condition

Fig. 18. TARANTULA MARGINEMACULATA

of the carapace and in the possession of eight eyes. They differ
in the absence of the caudal appendage and in having the abdomen
joined to the thorax by a slender pedicel. The flexible tip of the
first legs is very long and is composed of very many segments
(Fig. 18).

This family is the Phrynidae of some authors; it is represented

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

in the United States by two genera, Acanthophrynus and Tarantula.
These are separated as follows:

A. Front border of the cephalothorax armed with long teeth;
next to the last segment of the pedipalp with only one
long spine on the upper inner margin. P. 20.

Acanthophrynus
AA. Front border of the cephalothorax unarmed or only dentic-
ulate; next to the last segment of the pedipalp with at
least two long spines on the upper inner margin. P. 20.

Tarantula

The genus Acanthophrynus includes only a single known
species, Acanthophrynus coronatus (A-can-tho-phry'nus cor-o-
na'tus); this is found in California and Mexico. This species is
larger than those of the following genus, attaining a length of
nearly two inches.

The genus Tarantula (Ta-ran'tu-la) is represented in the
United States by three species. We have here an unfortunate
instance in which the technical and popular uses of a name are
very different. For although, according to the law of priority
the generic name Tarantula must be applied to these animals,
the popular name tarantula is irrevocably applied, in this country
at least, to the large four-lunged spiders of the South and the
Southwest.

Four species of Tarantula are known; these are separated by
Kraepelin as follows:

A. With two short spines between the longest spines of the tibia
of the pedipalps. T. fusimana

AA. With only one short spine between the longest spines of
the tibia of the pedipalps.
B. The intermediate spine between the two principal spines
of the pedipalps considerably longer than the spine
immediately preceding the first of the two principal
spines. T. whitei

BB. The intermediate spine shorter than the one preceding
the first of the principal spines.
C. The principal spine on the upper edge of the next to
the last segment of the pedipalps preceded by a dis-
tinct spine (Fig. 19). T. palmata

Spider and Their Near Relatives

CC. The above-mentioned spine preceded by a short tu-
bercle (Fig. 20). T. marginemaculata

Of these species Tarantula palmata alone has not been found
in the United States. 1 found T. marginemaculaia (Fig. 18)
not uncommon near Miama, Fla., under logs.
It is a very active creature.

According to several observers, the eggs
of members of this genus are carried in a sac
formed of a dark brown transparent material,
Flg' I9 containing some threads, and attached to the
ventral surface of the abdomen (Laurie '94). It is supposed
that the substance of which the egg-sac is composed exudes from
openings in the first abdominal segment (Bernard '95); but our
knowledge of the spinning glands of these animals is very in-
complete.

Order SCORPIONIDA

The Scorpions

The order Scorpionida (Scor-pi-on'i-da) includes only the
scorpions. Although these creatures do not live in the North,
they have been pictured so often that their
form is well-known. Their most striking
features are the large size of the pedipalps
which are furnished with very stout chelae,
and the division of the abdomen into two
portions: a broad preabdomen, consisting
of seven segments; and a slenderer tail-like
division, the post-abdomen or cauda, con-
sisting of five segments. At the end of the
postabdomen there is a large poison-sting,
which appears like a segment (Fig. 21).

The cephalothorax is compact and
unsegmented; the abdomen is broadly
joined to the thorax; the chelicerae are
chelate; the coxae of the pedipalps are fitted
for crushing the prey, which is seized by
the large chelae; the remaining four pairs of
cephalothoracic appendages are fitted for

.: 1

Fig. 21. A SCORPION

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

walking; they are seven-jointed, the tarsus consisting of three
segments, and the patella being wanting; the legs are not
chelate, but are furnished with tarsal claws. The coxae of the
first two pairs of ambulatory legs bear each an endite, which is
directed toward the mouth, and doubtless helps hold the prey
opposite the mouth (Fig. 22).

The cephalothorax bears a pair of eyes near the middle

line, the median eyes, and on each
side near the cepha.lo-lateral margin
a group of from two to five, the
lateral eyes. A few scorpions are
blind.

Full-grown,, scorpions possess a
pair of comb-like organs, the pectines
(pec'ti-nes), on the lower side of the
second abdominal segment (Fig. 22).
The function of these organs is not
yet known, but it has been suggested
that it is tactile. " Pocock noticed
that a scorpion which had walked
over a portion of a cockroach far
enough for the pectines to come in
contact with it immediately backed
and ate it."

Scorpions breathe by means of
book-lungs, of which there are four
pairs, opening on the lower side of the third to the sixth
abdominal segments.

The sexes of scorpions differ in that the male has broader
pincers and a longer postabdomen. Scorpions do not lay eggs,
the young being developed within the mother; after the birth
of the young, the mother carries them about with her for some
time, attached by their pincers to all portions of her body.

Scorpions live in warm countries. They are common in
the southern portion of the United States, but are not found
in the North. They are nocturnal, remaining concealed during
the day, but leaving their hiding places at dusk. When they
run, the pedipalps are carried horizontally in front, and are
used partly as feelers and partly as raptorial organs; and the
postabdomen is bent upward over the back by some, others

Fig. 22. VENTRAL ASPECT OF
THE CEPHALOTHORAX AND TWO.
THE THIRD AND FOURrH, AB-
DOMINAL SEGMENTS OF CEN-
TRURUS GRACILIS

~> ~)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Fig. 23. CARAPACE OF A
SCORPION

drag it along behind. They feed upon spiders and large insects,
which they seize with the large chelae of their pedipalps, and
sting to death with their caudal poison-sting.

Scorpions are shy animals; when disturbed they attempt to
run away and hide and do not sting unless molested.

The sting of a scorpion rarely if ever proves fatal to man,
although the larger species, which occur in the Tropics, produce
serious wounds. It is said that the best
remedy for the sting of a scorpion is
ammonia applied externally, and also
administered in small doses internally.

Scorpions attain maturity slowly,
Fabre (07) who studied them in con-
finement, came to the conclusion that it
required five years for them to reach
their full size.

In the classification of scorpions the
following special terms are used:

Upon the carapace, the dorsal covering of the cephalothorax,
ihere are often more or less distinct keels; these are distinguished
as the fore, middle, and hind, median and lateral
keels respectively; these keels are connected with
each other in various ways (Fig. 23). That part
of the fore median keel which is above a median
eye is termed the superciliary ridge.

Upon the postabdomen, or cauda, there are
often two pairs of keels upon the dorsal aspect
and two pairs on the ventral aspect of some or
of all of the segments. The two pairs of keels
nearest the middle line of the body are designated
as the dorsal median keels and the ventral median
keels respectively. Outside of these are the dorsal
lateral keels and the ventral lateral keels. In
Fig. 24. the addition to these eight principal keels accessory

CHELA OF A , , ,

scorpion "ee's ma>' be present.
ff, fixed finger ] he large basal portion of the chela of a

mj. movable finger pedipalp fc termed fa /W (Fjg ^ . and the

apposed portions are distinguished as the fixed finger and the
movable finger respectively, the movable finger being the last
segment of the pedipalp.

Fig. 25. A COMB OF A SCORPION

Fig. 26. TARSUS OF BUTHUS

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The sclerite on the middle line of the body from which the
combs arise is termed the basal piece of the combs (Fig. 25);
the series of sclerites that form the front margin of a comb con-
stitute the marginal area; next to these there is a series of

sclerites constituting the middle
area; the small sclerites be-
tween the middle area and the
teeth are the fulcra; and the
long slender appendages of the
comb are the teeth.

The characters presented
by the tarsi of the legs, and especially of the last pair of legs,
are much used, as, for example, the presence or absence of tarsal
spurs and the number of these spurs when present. Sometimes
the last segment of a tarsus is
prolonged above the claws form-
ing a dorsal lobe (Fig. 26); and
sometimes this segment is pro-
longed into a lobe on each side,
the lateral lobes (Fig. 27) ; and there is often a more or less claw-like
empodium below and between the claws (Fig. 26).

About a score of species of scorpions are known to occur
in the United States; besides these, other Mexican species may

be found in southern Texas. A general work

on the scorpions of the world was published

by Kraepelin in 1899 and a synopsis of our

species was published by Banks in 1900.

The following account is based upon these

two works and upon a study of the specimens

in the collection of Cornell University. The most important

work on the habits of scorpions is that of Fabre in the ninth

series of his Souvenirs Entomologiques (1907).

Kraepelin divides the order into six families; but only four
of these families occur in the United States; these can be separated
by the following table:

TABLE OF FAMILIES OF SCORPIONS

A. Only one spur at the base of the last tarsal segment of the
last pair of legs, and this is on the outside. P. 28.

SCORPIONID/E

Fig. 27. TARSUS OF
PANDINUS

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

AA. One or two spurs on each side at the base of the last tarsal
segment of the last pair of legs. .
B. From three to five lateral eyes on each side.
C. Sternum triangular (Fig. 22); usually a spine under the

Sting. P. 25. BuTHIDyE

CC. The lateral margins of the sternum nearly parallel

(Fig. 34); sternum usually broader than long; no

spine under the sting. P. 29. Ve|ovid/e

BB. Only two lateral eyes on each side. P. 29. Chactid^e

Family BUTHIDjE (Bu'thi-dae)

The members of this family are most easily recognized by
the form of the sternum, which is triangular in outline (Fig. 22).
There are one or two spurs on each side at the base of the last
tarsal segment of the last pair of legs. There are from three to
five lateral eyes on each side. The hand of the chelae is rounded
and the fingers are long. The last segment of the tarsus of the
legs is not terminated by lateral lobes. There is usually a spine
under the sting.

This is a large family, containing more than 150 known
species, representing 18 genera. Nearly one half of the species
of scorpions occurring in our fauna belong to it. These represent
four genera, which can be separated as follows:

A. A distinct tarsal spur at the distal end of the first tarsal

segment of the third and fourth legs (Subfamily

Buthinae). P. 26. Uroplectes

AA. No tarsal spur at the distal end of the first tarsal segment

of the last pair of legs (Subfamily Centrurinae).

B. The oblique rows of teeth on the edge of the fingers of the

chelae have on each side a parallel row of minute teeth

(Fig. 31). P. 27. Centrurus

BB. The oblique rows of teeth on the edge of the finger

of the chelae not accompanied by parallel rows of minute

teeth.

C. The ends of the oblique rows of teeth on the fingers of

the chelae overlapping (Fig. 30). P. 27. Tityus

CC. The ends of the oblique rows of teeth on the fingers of

the chelae not overlapping but often connected in

one direct line (Fig. 28). P. 26. Isometrus

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Genus UROPLECTES (U-ro-plec'tes)

This genus is the only representative in our fauna of the sub-
family Buthinae, which is characterized by the presence of a tarsal
spur at the distal end of the first tarsal segment of the third
and fourth legs. Of this genus the following species is the only
one yet found within the limits of the United States.

The Mexican Uroplectes, Uroplectes mexicanus (U. mex-i-
ca'nus). — This is a pale species. There is no spine under the
sting; the teeth on the finger of the palpus are in
many oblique rows, with stouter teeth at the end of
each and to one side; there are from thirty to thirty-
five teeth in the combs; and the keels on the under
side of the last caudal segment are very strongly
toothed. This species has been found in Texas and
in California.

Genus ISOMETRUS (I-som'e-trus)

In this genus, there are only a few oblique rows
of teeth on the edge of the fingers of the chelae
and these do not overlap (Fig. 28); there is a large
spine under the sting (Fig. 29); and the abdomen
has a single keel above. The following is our only
species.

The spotted Isometrus, Isometrus maculatus (I.
mac-u-Ia'tus). — This is a dirty yellow species marbled
and flecked with black. The body is thin and
In the female the postabdomen is

usually about as long as the rest of the

body; in the male, it is often twice as long.

The hand is long and thin, thinner than the

tibia of the pedipalp; the finger is from one and

a half to two times as long as the hand. The

combs have from seventeen to nineteen teeth.

to nearly two inches in length; the males, to nearly three inches.
This species is distributed throughout the tropical and

subtropical regions of the world; in this country it is found in

southern Florida, and California, and, probably, in the inter-
mediate regions.

Fig. 28.
FINGER
OF ISO-
METRUS
MACU-
LATUS

slender.

Fig. 29. STING OF
ISOMETRUS MACU-
LATUS

The female grows

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Genus TITYUS (Tit'y-us)

There are many overlapping oblique rows of teeth on the
of the fingers of the chelae (Fig. 30). The following is the
only species found in the United States.
Tityus Jloridanus (T. flor-i-da'nus).—
This is a dark, red-brown species measur-
ing nearly three inches in length, found
at Key West. The sting is long and
curved; the tooth beneath it is acute, but
short.

Genus CENTRURUS (Cen-tru'rus)

Fig. 3°-

Fig. 31-
FINGER OF
CENTRURUS

The oblique rows of teeth on the
edge of the fingers of the chelae have on
each side a parallel row of minute teeth
(Fig. 31). There is a tooth on the lower
margin of the fixed finger of the chelicerae,
fingerof and a spine under the sting may be either

TITYUS .•

present or wanting .
Banks (00) lists seven species of this genus that are found
in our fauna. He separates them as follows:

A. No spine under the sting; postabdomen very long and
slender. Occurs in California. Centrums exilicauda

AA. At least a small spine or tubercle under the sting; post-
abdomen less slender.
B. Body striped with black and yellow.
C. A small pale median spot on the anterior border of the
cephalothorax, legs pale yellow, postabdomen pale.
Occurs in the Southern States. Centrums caroliniauus
No such median spot on the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax, legs marbled with brown, postabdomen
brown, dark stripes on the cephalothorax, broader
than the preceding species. Occurs in Florida.

Centrums hent{i
Body nearly uniform reddish brown or blackish.

Body a dark greenish black, cephalothorax very rough,
postabdomen strongly granulate. Occurs in Texas.

Centrums nigrescem

CC.

BB.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

CC. Body reddish or yellowish brown.

D. Fingers paler than the .hand, yellowish, otherwise
dark red-brown, spine under the sting often small
and blunt. Occurs in Florida.

Centrums margaritatus
DD. Fingers usually darker than the hand.

E. Colour yellowish brown, combs with rarely more
than twenty-four teeth, spine under the sting
not very prominent. Occurs in southern Florida.

Centrums testaceus
EE. Colour reddish brown, combs with usually more
than twenty-five teeth, spine under sting well-
developed, usually much larger than the preceding.
Occurs in Florida. Centrurus gracilis

Family SCORPIONIDiE (Scor-pi-on'i-dae)

In this family there is only one spur at the base of the last
tarsal segment of the last pair of legs and this is on the outside.
The lateral margins of the sternum are nearly parallel. There
are no spurs at the end of the first tarsal segment of the third
and fourth legs. There are three lateral eyes on each side. The
hand is usually flattened, seldom rounded, and there is rarely a
spine under the sting. Two genera occur in our fauna.

A. With a hump under the sting (Fig. 32). Diplocentrus
AA. Without a hump under the sting. Opisthacanthus

Genus DIPLOCENTRUS (Dip-lo-cen'trus)

Two species belonging to this genus are found within the
limits of the United States.

Diplocentrus whitei (D. whi'te-i). — This is a Mexican species
which is found in Texas and California. It can be distinguished
from the following by the presence of from twelve to eighteen

teeth in the comb. The full-grown male

measures nearly or quite two inches in length.

Diplocentrus lesueurii (D. le-su-eu'ri-i). —

This species was described from Florida. It

Fig. 32. sting of differs from the preceding in having only

DIPLOCENTRUS r . . . . . , i

whitei from six to eight teeth in the comb.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives
Genus OPISTHACANTHUS (O-pis-tha-can'thus)

Only one species of this genus occurs in our fauna.

Opisthacantbus elatus (O. e-la'tus).- The cephalothorax
is deeply emarginate on the anterior margin; the postabdomen
is small; the chelae large. Comb with from four to fourteen teeth.
The adult is sometimes three and one half inches in length. It
is a West Indian species, which is found in southern Florida.

Family CHACTIDiE (Chac'ti-dae)

These scorpions can be distinguished from all others found
in the United States by the presence of only two lateral eyes on
each side. The family is represented in this country by a single

genus.

Genus BROTEAS (Bro'te-as)

In this genus, the last segment of the tarsus bears
two rows of bristles on the under side (Fig. 33). Only
one species has been found in the United States.

Broteas alleni (B. al'le-ni).-- This is a small species,
the length of the body and tail together of the female
being but little more than one inch and of the male, Fig. 33-
about one and one half inch. The dorsum is beauti- J^/^
fully polished and not at all tuberculate. The palpi tarsusof
are of medium size. The tail is short; in the female, BROTEAS
it is not so long as the body. This species is found in
southern California.

Family VEJOVIDiE (Ve-jov'i-dae)

There is one spur on each side at the
base of the last tarsal segment of the last
pair of legs. There are three lateral eyes on
each side. The sternum is usually broader than
long, with a deep median furrow and with the
lateral sides nearly parallel (Fig. 34). There is
no spine under the sting. There are four genera
Fi8'3' vSovii1 M °F of this family found in the United States:

A. Middle area of the comb either indistinct or composed
of not more than six pieces.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

B. Lower margin of the movable finger of the chelicerae
with about five teeth. The sting normal. P. 30.

Uroctonus

BB. Movable finger of the chelicerae with not more than three

teeth. Sting of male swollen at base. (Fig. 36). P. 30.

An UROCTONUS

AA. Middle area of the comb divided into at least eight small

pieces.

B. No tooth on the lower margin of the movable finger of

the chelicerae. Penultimate tarsal segment of the three

front pairs of legs not strikingly clothed with bristles

above. P. 31. Vejovis

BB. A strong, brown tooth on the lower margin near the tip
of the movable finger of the chelicerae. Penultimate
tarsal segment of the three front pairs of legs with a
comb of long bristles. P. 32. Hadrurus

Genus UROCTONUS (U-roc-to'nus)

The lower margin of the movable finger of the chelicerae is armed
with about five teeth. The edge of the fingers of the chelae bear one

long row of tubercles flanked

by isolated tubercles (Fig.

35). The sting of both sexes

is of the usual form. The

lung-slits are nearly oval.

Uroctonus mordax. — This is the only known species of this

genus. It is found on the Pacific Coast. It attains a length of

nearly two and one half inches.

Fig. 35 FINGER OF UROCTONUS

Genus AN UROCTONUS (A-nu-roc-to'nus)

The movable finger of the chelicerae is furnished with
not more than three teeth. The lung-slits are
elongate. The sting of the male is swollen at its
base (Fig. 36).

Anurodonus phccodactylus (A. phae-o-dac'ty-
lus). — This is the only known species of the genus.
It has been found in Utah and in California. It Fig. 36. sting

.. • , ., £ , , 1 ir • 1 OFANUROC-

attains a length 01 nearly two and one half inches. tonus

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Genus VEJOVIS (Ve'jo-vis)

There are no teeth on the lower edge of the claw of the
chelicerae. The edge of the fingers of the chelae bears one long
row of tubercles flanked by isolated tubercles. The last segment
of the tarsus of the last pair of legs is furnished with a distinct
empodium and with a row of short tubercles on the lower side.
The middle area of the comb is composed of from eight to many
rounded pieces. The fulcra are also rounded. The next to the
last segment of the tarsus of the first three pairs of legs is not
furnished with a comb of bristles.

Banks ('oo) lists six species of this genus from our fauna and
separates them as follows:

A. Hand of the chelae with distinct ridges or keels and more
or less granulate.
B. On the under side of the first caudal segment the median
keels are distinct and sharp, although fine, the sting
is very slender and long. Occurs in the Far West.

Vejovis puncfipalpi
BB. There are no median keels on the under side of the first
caudal segment or they are extremely indistinct, the
sting is of ordinary length.
C. The hand is strongly keeled, there are no keels on the
hind tibiae, the colour is yellowish or greenish. Oc-
curs from Nebraska to Idaho and in Utah and
Nevada. Vejovis boreus

CC. Hand less sharply keeled, hind tibiae with very plain
keels, colour uniform reddish brown, legs paler. Occurs
in Texas. Vejovis mexicanus

AA. Hand smaller, without keels, the corners rounded and
smooth.
B. On the under side of the first caudal segment the median
keels are plain, but not indicated by black lines, hand
very slender, the fingers longer than in Vejovis spini-
gerus, colour uniform yellowish. Occurs in New Mexico.

Vejovis jLivus
BB. No median keels on the under side of the first caudal
segment or at most only indicated by black lines.
C. Under side of cauda not very dark, the keels all indicated

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

by black lines, palpi usually yellowish. Occurs in
Texas, Arizona, and California. Vejovis spinigerus
CC. Under side of cauda, with the whole of the dorsum and
the palpi dark reddish brown; no black lines indicating
the keels on the cauda, smaller than the preceding
species. Occurs from South Carolina to Texas.

Vejovis carolinus

Genus HADRURUS (Had-ru'rus)

There is a strong brown tooth on the lower margin of the
movable finger of the chelicerae. The last segment of the tarsus
with a large empodium. The penultimate tarsal segment of the
three front pairs of legs with a comb of long bristles.

Hadrurus hirsutus (H. hir-su'tus). — This is a very large and
hairy species found in the Southwest. The penultimate tarsal
segment of the first three pairs of legs is furnished with long
hairs on the back.

Order SOLPUGIDA*

The Solpugids

The order Solpugida (Sol-pu'gi-da) includes a small number
of comparatively rare arachnids; only a few species occur in the
United States, and specimens of these are rarely found; they
occur in the southern and western portions of our territory.
They are chiefly nocturnal and hide during the daytime, which
may account in part for their unfamiliarity, but some are
diurnal.

Figure 37 will serve to illustrate the form of these strange
arachnids. Their most striking features are the enormous size
of the chelicerae, and the segmented condition of the thorax.
In the latter respect they resemble the Microthelyphonida and
the Shizonotidae already described; the segment bearing the second
pair of legs (the fourth pair of appendages) being more or less
distinct, and the segments bearing the last two pairs of legs

* The name Solpugides was proposed by Leach in 1815 as a family name; it is now spelled Solpugida
for the sake of uniformity with other ordinal names of Arachnida. The name Solifugae, which is used
by some writers was proposed by Sundervall in 1833; there seems to be no good reason for substituting
this for the older name. The name Galeodea, proposed for this order by Kirby and Spence in 1826,
is used by some writers, evidently because the generic name Galeodes is older than the generic name
Solpuga; but as the name Solpuga is still retained for one of the genera of this order, there appears no
good reason fur adopting the latter ordinal name.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

resembling the abdominal segments in the degree of their dis-
tinctness. This is doubtless a very generalized feature.

The abdomen consists of ten segments, all of which are free.
The beak, which bears the mouth at its tip, projects forward
from between the basal segments of the pedipalps. There is a
pair of eyes near the middle line on the front part of the head,
and one or two vestigial eyes on each side of the head (Bernard
'96). The chelicerae are two-jointed and chelate; compared to
the size of the body, they are larger than in any other arachnids;
and they are the only ap-
pendages fitted for crushing
the prey. "Observers re-
late that, in order to bring
the beak up to the wound
in its prey, the animals
work the chelicerae with a
sawing motion, holding
tight with one to drive
the other deeper in." A
peculiarity of these che-
licerae is that the second
segment is articulated to
the lower side of the first
segment, so that the pincers
open and shut dorsoven-
trally. In some forms each
chelicera bears on its upper
side a remarkable sensory
appendage, which is called
the JJ age Hum; this varies in
shape greatly in the differ-
ent genera; it has been thought that this organ is possessed only
by males, but (Bernard '96) states that this is not certain. The
function of the flagellum is unknown. The pedipalps are leg-like
in form, but without claws. They bear no masticatory ridges;
and it is evident that their chief function is that of feelers. At
the tip of each pedipalp there is an invaginated sense organ
(Bernard '96); these were formerly supposed to be suckers for
clinging to objects. The first pair of legs have lost their locomotor
function and doubtless resemble the pedipalps in function; their

Fig. 37. EREMOBATES CINEREA

(after Putnam)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

claws are vestigial. It might be said, therefore, that the sol-
pugids have two pairs of pedipalps and only three pairs of legs.
No other arachnids have two pairs of feelers. It will be re-
membered that in the Pedipalpida, where the first pair of legs are
developed into feelers, the pedipalps are fitted for crushing the
prey. The remaining three pairs of legs are fitted for locomotion,
and bear tarsal claws. The trochanters of the last pair of legs
consist each of two segments.

One of the most characteristic features of the solpugids are
the racquet-organs, which are borne by the last pair of legs.
These are T-shaped or racquet-shaped sense organs (Fig. 38),
of which there are five on each hind leg, two on
the coxa, two on the trochanter, and one on the
femur. They have been described in detail by
Bernard ('96).

The respiratory organs are tracheae. There
is a pair of spiracles behind the coxae of the first
pair of ambulatory legs; and the second and the
third abdominal segments each bear a pair of
spiracles on the ventral side; these are covered
by opercula. Sometimes the fourth abdominal
racquet-organs segment bears a single, median spiracle.

The opening of the reproductive organs is
on the first abdominal segment, and is covered by a pair of
opercula, which are regarded as vestiges of abdominal limbs.

Most solpugids spend the day under stones or other rubbish
or in holes in the ground, and come forth at night to seek their
prey; but some species are diurnal. They occur chiefly in desert
regions, but sometimes they enter houses. They feed on insects,
and it is said that they will attack and "devour" small verte-
brates such as lizards (Hutton '43). Captain Hutton states
distinctly that the Galeodes observed by him consumed an entire
lizard except the jaws and part of the skin. Other instances in
which solpugids are supposed to have eaten their prey are given
by the Rev. J. J. Wood, in his " Natural History Illustrated," and
quoted by Murray ('77). Still it is believed that the solpugids
take only liquid food, which they suck from the bodies of their
victims. (Bernard '96, p. 357.) Professor Cook reports that in
southern California they enter hives and capture honey-bees,
both workers and drones.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Pocock ('98) states that the females excavate subterranean
burrows for the protection of themselves and their young. The
process has been observed in the case of an Indian species. Choos-
ing a suitable spot, the female proceeded to cut away the earth
in a circle with her chelicerae, then kicked away the loosened
fragments with her legs, or scraping them together into a heap
with the pedipalps, pushed the pile by main force from the en-
trance of the burrow. At its opposite end, the eggs, about fifty
in number and resembling a mustard seed in size and shape,
were laid; they hatched about a fortnight afterward. For
three weeks the young showed no sign of movement. They then
moulted for the first time and started to crawl about on their
own account, little copies in miniature of their mother, who
mounted guard at the entrance and resolutely repelled all intru-
ders, snapping without hesitation at every object thrust into the
burrow.

The solpugids are exceedingly agile; on this account they
have been called wind-scorpions, a name translated from the
Arabic. One observer compares them to a piece of thistledown
driven before the wind. "Often when going at full speed, in
search for food, they will stop abruptly and begin hunting and
feeling around a small spot, irresistibly calling to mind the be-
haviour of a dog checked in mid-course by the scent of game.
(Pocock, 98.)

The Indian species referred to above is an expert climber,
and has been seen to ascend trees to some height above the
ground in search of prey. And it is also stated that in Egypt
it is no uncommon thing to see Galeodes arabs climbing on to a
table to get at the flies. To capture such quick and wary insects
the solpugid adopts the tactics of the hunting-spider; instead of
making a furious dart, as it would if the prey in sight were a beetle,
it proceeds to stalk the flies in the most wary fashion, creeping
toward them with such slowness and stealth that the movements
of the legs are almost imperceptible, yet all the while drawing
gradually nearer and nearer; then like a flash of light the inter-
vening space is traversed, and the insect struck down and cap-
tured. (Mr. A. Carter quoted by Mr. Pocock 98.)

The solpugids are commonly believed to be venomous; but
those who have studied them most carefully do not think that
this is so. No poison glands have been found, and observers

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

have allowed themselves to be bitten by solpugids without
suffering anything worse than a passing pain from the wound.

Among the more important works on the structure of these
animals are those of Dufour ('62) and Bernard ('96); and a general
work on their classification was published by Simon ('79). The
species of the United States were studied by Putnam ('83), and
an analytical synopsis of them is given by Banks ('00). Only
twelve species are known to occur in our fauna; but doubtless
more remain to be discovered. Our known species represent
three genera, which can be separated as follows:

A. Anterior margin of the cephalothorax truncate.
B. Hind tarsi consisting of a single segment. P. 36.

Eremobates

BB. Hind tarsi three-jointed. P. 37. Hemerotrecha

AA. Anterior margin of the cephalothorax subconical. p. 38.

Ammotrecha

Genus EREMOBATES (Er-e-mob'a-tes)

In the members of this genus the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax forms a transverse straight line or is slightly
arched (Fig. 37); and the tarsus of the last pair of legs consists
of a single segment.

In the males the fixed finger of the chelicerae is straight
and unarmed; and the flagellum is replaced by a strong bundle
of setae.

The name Eremobates now applied to the genus replaces
the name Datames by which it has been commonly known; the
name Datames was first applied to a genus of walking-sticks,
Phasmidae, and can not be used for these solpugids.

To the genus Eremobates belong eight of the twelve species
of the order known to occur in the United States. These are
separated by Banks ('00) as follows:

A. Movable finger of the chelicerae of the male with two large
subequal teeth with denticles between them.
B. Some short conical spines under the tibia of the palpus
in both sexes. Occurs in Colorado and New Mexico.

Eremobates sulpburea

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. No such spines under the tibia in either sex. Occurs

in New Mexico. Eremobates jormicaria

AA. Movable finger of the cheliceras of the male with but one

large tooth, others much smaller.

B. Movable finger of the chelicerae of the male constricted

from below near the apical third. Occurs in Arizona

and California. Eremobates californica

BB. Movable finger not constricted from below.

C. The movable finger near the apical fourth is suddenly

narrowed from above, very large species. Occurs in

Arizona. Eremobates cinerea

CC. If the movable finger is narrowed from above, it is

much before the apical fourth.

D. Only slender hairs on the inner side of the femur

and tibia of the palpus of the male. Occurs in

Kansas, Texas, Colorado, and Wyoming.

Eremobates pallipes

DD. Spine-like bristles on the inner side of the femur

and tibia of the palpus of the male.

E. Upper finger stouter than usual, narrowed near

the tip, a small tooth near the middle of

the movable finger, tips of palpi black.

Occurs in Texas and Arizona.

Eremobates magna

EE. Upper finger slender throughout, no tooth near

the middle of the movable finger.

F. Small conical spines on the under side of the

tibia of the palpus of the male. Occurs in

California and Arizona.

Eremobates formidabilis
FF. No such spines on the tibia of the palpus of
of the male. Occurs in California.

Eremobates putnami

Genus 1 IEMEROTRECHA (Hem-e-rot're-cha)

The members of this genus resemble Eremobates in having
the cephalothorax truncate in front; but differ in having the hind
tarsi three-jointed. The male has an elongated flagellum con-
sisting of two pieces lying along the inner side of the upper finger

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

(Fig. 39). The upper finger of the male is without teeth; but there
are several teeth on the basal half of the lower finger.

Only a single species has been
described; this is Hemerotrecba cali-
fornica. It was found near Pacific
Grove, California. The male meas-
ures two fifths inch in length. The
adult female is unknown as yet.

Genus AMMOTRECHA
(Am-mot're-cha)

Fig. 3g. CHELICER/E OF
HEMEROTRECHA

The members of this genus are
sharply distinguished from the other
two genera found in our fauna by the subconical form of the
anterior end of the cephalothorax
(Fig. 40). The chelicerae are long
and not so stout as in Eremobates.
The fixed finger is armed with a row
of unequal teeth.

The name Ammotrecha has been
substituted for Cleobis formerly applied
to this genus, as the name Cleobis was
preoccupied.

Only three species of Ammotrecha
have been found within the United
States; these are separated by Banks
('00) as follows:

A. Lower finger of the chelicerae
finely, but distinctly, denticu-

■Y y' V-,IL,V'" Fig. 40. AMMOTRECHA CUB^

late beyond the large teeth (after Putnam)

near its base; a broad dark

band on the middle of the metatarsus of the palpus.
Occurs in California. Ammotrecha californica

AA. Lower finger not denticulate.

B. Upper finger with a very plain ridge above at base, below
there are several small teeth followed by three large
subequal teeth. Occurs in Arizona.

Ammotrecha peninsulana

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. Upper finger with a less distinct ridge, below there are
two large teeth, a small one, then a large one. Occurs
in Florida. Ammotrecha cubce

Order ARANEIDA*

The Spiders

The order Araneida, which includes only the spiders, is
discussed at length in the following chapters, to which the reader
is referred. The order is mentioned here merely to indicate its
position in the series of orders into which the Class Arachnida
is divided.

Order PSEUDOSCORPIONIDAf

The Pseudoscorpions

The pseudoscorpions (Fig. 41) are small arachnids which
resemble scorpions in the form of their pedipalps and of their
body, except that the hind
part of the abdomen is not
narrow, as is the postab-
domen of scorpions, and
they have no caudal sting.

The body is flattened,
which enables these crea-
tures to live in narrow
spaces, as beneath the bark
of trees, between the leaves
of books, and between
boards in buildings. The
cephalothorax is either un-

segmented or crossed by one or two transverse furrows.
The abdomen is broadly joined to the thorax; it is broad, flat,
consists usually of eleven segments, and bears neither a sting
nor a caudal appendage. On the ventral side of the cephalo-

Fig. 41. PSEUDOSCORPION

•The name Araneides was proposed by Latreille as a family name in iSoCi; it was changed to Ara-
neidea by Leach in 1S17; and it is now spelled Araneida for the sake "I uniformity with other ordinal
names of Arachnida. The form Aranea. which is used by some writers was introduced by Sundevall
in 1833.

t The original form of this name was Pseudoscorpitma, a family name proposed by Latreille in 1817.
The family aaxat'jCherttettdlS proposed by Menge in 1855 is used by some writers as the name of the
order; but it should be dropped.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

thorax, the coxae of the appendages meet on the middle line
(Fig. 42) so that there are no traces of sternites except perhaps
the labium and a triangular plate between the last pair of legs

which is visible in some genera.

The median eyes are wanting; there
are only one or two pairs of lateral eyes;
and in some forms even these are wanting.
The beak is well-developed and con-
sists of a labrum and a labium; the former
is broad and extends down on each side of
the narrow labium.

The chelicera? are complicated in struc-
ture, and as their variations in form afford

VENTRAL^ASPECT OF CnaracterS that are mUch USed in dassifica-

cephalothorax and tion, they merit a detailed description.
of two abdominal Th are two-jointed and chelate; the

SEGMENTS - J

chela? are horizontal, the movable second
segment or finger forming the lateral mem-
ber of the pincers (Fig. 43).

The movable finger of the chelicera bears on
its lateral side near the tip a spinneret; in some s.
forms this is simply a slight eminence on which
the ducts of the silk glands open (Fig. 44);
in others it is prolonged into a slender, more
or less branched stylet (Fig. 43); and in a
South American genus the finger of each
chelicera bears three simple spinnerets. The
elongated type of this organ is designated
by different writers as process of the finger,
as stylet, and as galea; but now that its
function is known, the term spinneret is sug-
gested as more descriptive and one which can
be applied to all types of the organ.

The finger of the chelicera bears also on
its inner margin a comb-like organ, the
serrula; this is either attached throughout its
entire length to the finger (Fig. 43) or the distal part is free
(Fig. 44). Balzan (91) divided the order into two suborders
using these two types of the serrula as the distinguishing
characters.

Fig. 43- CHELICERA
OF CHELIFER
s, spinneret more en-
larged /, flagellum

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The first segment of the chelicera bears on its under side an
appendage, which is termed the jlagellum. In its most highly
developed form, as seen in Chthonius (Fig. 44), the flagellum
consists of a slender transparent stalk divided at its extremity
into a greater or less number of branches, which may be simple
or divided into secondary branches, and which are always clothed
with fine hairs. In the simpler form as seen in Chelifer it consists
of a row of three or four filiform appendages (Fig. 43/). The
flagellum is extremely delicate and therefore difficult to study.

The chelicerae function as spinning organs, and as such are
discussed later.

The pedipalps are enormously de-
veloped and chelate, resembling those
of scorpions. The chelae are furnished
with scattered tactile hairs, which must
serve as feelers. "The comparatively
slow, deliberate manner of hunting prey
may account for the fact that they re-
quire no more specialized feelers than
the pedipalps themselves, which are, as
every one who watches them alive knows,
highly sensitive" (Bernard '96). The coxae
of the pedipalps are extended forward
so as to form masticatory plates or they
bear distinct endites; these serve to hold
the prey in front of the mouth, and per-
haps also function as jaws.

All of the four pairs of legs are
fitted for walking (Fig. 41). The seg-
mentation of the legs in this order is
somewhat different from the usual type in the Arachnida. The
tibia is not divided, in other words a patella is wanting. On
the other hand, with many pseudoscorpions, the femur consists
of two, more or less distinct, segments; when this division
exists, the proximal segment may be termed the second tro-
chanter. This second trochanter is sometimes a very distinct
segment (Fig. 4s a); but in other cases it is a triangular seg-
ment, closely joined to the femur (Fig. 45 b), and resembling
the trochanter of many beetles.

This segment which I have designated the second trochanter

Fig. 44-
CHELICERA OF CHTHONIUS

s, spinneret /, flagellum

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

is commonly termed the trocbantin by writers on the Pseudo-
scorpionida. But the word trochantin was first used in this sense

by Blanchard in 1852, long after
it had been in general use by
entomologists in an entirely dif-
ferent sense.

The number of segments in

LEGS OF CHELIFER
a, fore leg b, hind leg i, coxa 2, trochanter 3a, second
trochanter 3b, femur 4, tibia

the tarsus varies from one to three. The praetarsus is usually
distinct; and there are two tarsal claws. Below the claws
there is a membranous empodium (Fig. 46).

The respiratory organs are tubular tracheae, which open
by two pairs of long slit-like spiracles on the second and third
abdominal segments, on the ventral side near the lateral margins.
In addition to these there are vestigial spiracles on all of the re-
maining abdominal segments (Bernard '93). In the form of the

respiratory organs the pseudo-
scorpions differ greatly from the
scorpions, near which they are
commonly placed in the text-books.
The opening of the reproduc-
tive organs is on the middle line
between the second and third ab-
dominal sterna. The female carries
the eggs about, attached to the abdomen; they are on the
outer surface of a sac which is attached to the wall of the opening
of the reproductive organs by a slender and broad pedicel, the
whole forming a small raspberry-shaped mass. The sac is filled
with food material; and the young when hatched are furnished
with a long sucking beak by means of which they obtain the food
thus supplied. They attain their definite form in this position.

Fig. 46. TARSUS OF CHELIFER

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The transformations have been described by Metchnikoff ('71),
Bouvier ('96), and Barrois ('96).

Behind the opening of the reproductive organs there are two
median papillae through which glands open, one at the anterior
edge of the second abdominal segment and one in the corresponding
place on the third abdominal segment. These were formerly
believed to be silk organs; but the glands are now regarded as
cement glands, which secrete the substance with which the eggs
are fastened to the mother. These
glands appear to develop periodically
(Bernard '93).

In the males there is borne by the
first abdominal segment a pair of re-
markable structures known as the ram's-
horn organs. They are situated under
the genital operculum, close to the
genital aperture. In Fig. 42 the tips
of these organs can be seen through
the genital operculum; but they may be
extended to great length, reaching to
either the front or the hind end of the
body as shown in Fig. 47 from Simon

('79)-

The function of these organs has

not been determined. Menge ('55) who

first described them, believed that they

Fig. 47. VEN-
TRAL ASPECT
OF CHELIFER
SHOWING THE
RAM'S-HORN
ORGANS EX-
PANDED

were sexual organs; but Croneberg

('88) and Bernard (93) suggest that they are respiratory.

1 he true silk glands were discovered by Croneberg ('87).
They are situated in the cephalothorax and open through a group
ol minute apertures near the tip of the movable finger of the
chelicera, in the same position as the opening of the poison gland
of spiders. In those forms in which the spinneret is long and
branched the openings of the silk ducts are on the tips of the
branches; in Obisium they open on a blunt prominence, which
may be regarded as a rudiment of a spinneret ; in this case according
to Bernard ('93a) there are about seven of these ducts in each
chelicera.

The silk spun by the chelicera? is used for the formation of
a web or a cocoon in which the pseudoscorpion retreats during

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

the moulting period and during the winter; sometimes earth is
mixed with the silk in forming the cocoon. It is believed that
the function of the serrula is the manipulation of this silk. Like
the cement glands, the silk glands appear to be subject to periodic
variations in their development; this is doubtless explained by
the fact that they are needed only at certain and rather remote
periods.

The pseudoscorpions live under stones, beneath the bark of
trees, in moss, under leaves on the ground, in the nests of bees,
of ants, and of Termites, and in the dwellings of man, where
they are often found between the leaves of books. In the South
they have been beaten from leaves of palmetto. It is believed
that they feed chiefly on mites, psocids, and other minute insects.
They are often found attached to insects, especially to flies and
to beetles. Most writers think that they do not feed on these
large insects, but merely use them as means of rapid locomotion;
but according to the observations of Berg ('93) the pseudoscor-
pions kill the flies and eat them afterward.

An excellent account of the order with descriptions of the
species occurring in France was published by Simon ('79) and
later Balzan ('91) gave a new and elaborate classification. There
are many other European papers on the order; but I have found
these two the most useful.

Nearly fifty species representing eleven genera have been
recorded from the United States; and it is probable that many
more species remain to be discovered, as the order has been studied
by onlv a few American entomologists. A synopsis of our recorded
species was published by Banks C95&); and a list of them by
Coolidge ('08).

Following the classification of Balzan we have in our fauna
representatives of three families; these can be separated as
follows:

A. Cephalothorax with a transverse median suture. P. 45.

CHELIFERIDyt

AA. Cephalothorax without a transverse suture.

B. Serrula of the chelicera attached throughout its length
to the movable finger. P. 45. Cheliferid/E

BB. Serrula of the chelicera attached only at the base.

C. Spinneret of the chelicera long, slender, and trans-

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

parent.* Femur and tibia of the first two pairs of

legs short and stout. P. 50. Ideobisiidve

CC. Spinneret knob-like and of the same colour as the finger.

Femur and tibia of the first two pairs of legs rather

long and slender. P. 51. Obisiid^

Family CHELIFERIDiE (Chel-i-fer'i-dae)

This family includes all those pseudoscorpions in which there
is retained evidences of segmentation of the cephalothorax; in
the other families the cephalothorax is without any transverse
sutures on the dorsal aspect; and this is also true of some members
of this family. Even in those genera in which the more typical
species have well-marked transverse sutures there are species
in which the sutures are indistinct. The presence of one or two
transverse sutures in the cephalothorax clearly indicates that the
species belongs to this family; but if such sutures be wanting,
the position of the species must be determined by other characters.

The members of this family differ from all other pseudo-
scorpions in having the serrula attached throughout its length
to the finger of the chelicera. The spinneret of the chelicera is
long and delicate. The flageilum is absent. The tarsi of the
legs are one-jointed; and the tarsal claws are short and thick
and more or less split on some or on all of the feet.

The following table will aid in separating the five genera
representing this family in our fauna; but unfortunately the pres-
ence or absence of a transverse furrow on the cephalothorax is
sometimes difficult to determine.

A. With only two eyes or with none; cephalothorax evenly

rounded in front; anterior legs with a second trochanter.

(Subfamily Cheliferinas.)

B. Cephalothorax with a transverse suture.

C. Femur of the palpus not pedicellate, gradually and

slightly enlarged from base to tip; palpi very long

and slender; eyes present except in cave species.

P. 46. Chelifer

CC. Femur of palpus distinctly pedicellate, being suddenly

• According to Ranks ('95b) some males of the genus Ideoroncus "lack the stylet"— i. e., the spin-
neret is short.

I-

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

enlarged near the base; palpi short and stout; eyes
usually wanting. P. 47. Chelanops

BB. Cephalothorax without a transverse suture. P. 49.

Atemnus
AA. With four eyes; cephalothorax narrowed quite suddenly
in front of the eyes; anterior pair of legs without a second
trochanter. (Subfamily Garypinae).
B. Cephalothorax with a transverse suture, although some-
times it is indistinct; eyes remote from anterior mar-
gin of the carapace. P. 49. Garypus
BB. Cephalothorax without a transverse suture. Anterior
eyes about their diameter from the anterior margin of
the carapace. P. 50. Olpium

Genus CHELIFER (Chel'i-fer)

Seven species of Chelifer have been found in the United
States. These can be separated by the following table which is
based on one published by Banks C95&):

A. Without eyes; the tibia of the pedipalp swollen on the inner
side. This is a cave species, described from Kentucky
and Virginia. Chelifer mirabilis

AA. With two distinct eyes.

B. Tibia of the pedipalp a little convex on the inner side;

fingers a little shorter than the hand. This is a western

species which has been found in Utah, California, and

Oregon. Chelifer scabrisculus

BB. Tibia of the pedipalp not convex on the inner side;

fingers as long as the hand.

C. Hand much darker than the other part of the palpus.

Common in the East and the Middle West.

Chelifer muricatus
CC. Palpi unicolorous.

D. Tibia of the pedipalp longer than the cephalothorax
plus the chelicerae and distinctly concave on the
outer side at the base. Known only from south-
ern Florida. Chelifer floridanus
DD. The tibia of the pedipalp not longer than the ceph-
alothorax plus the chelicerae, the outer side not
concave.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

E. Body red-brown; hand quite thick; larger gran-
ules on the cephalothorax.
F. Abdominal scutas each with a roughened ridge,
most prominent in the males. Found in
southern Arizona. Chelifer bubbardi

FF. Abdominal scutae without a roughened edge.
This is our most common and most widely
distributed species. It is often found in houses.

Chelifer cancroides

EE. Body pale yellowish; hand more slender; no

larger granules on the cephalothorax. This species

was beaten from the leaves of palmetto in Florida.

Chelifer biscriatum

Genus CHELANOPS (Chel'a-nops)

The genus Cbelanops is by far the largest of our genera, in-
cluding nineteen of our described species. No complete table
i)t" them has been published as yet; the following, based on one b\
Banks ('95 b.) will enable the student to determine most of the
species:

A. 1 lairs on the palpi very long and simple, abdomen long and

of equal width throughout. This group is represented in

our fauna by the two following species.

B. Of moderate size; less than one eighth inch in length. A

species well distributed throughout the Eastern and

Southern States. Cbelanops oblongus

BB. A much larger species found in Colorado and southern

Arizona. .Cbelanops grossus

AA. Hairs on the palpi short and thick often clavate, abdomen

much the widest in the middle.

B. Hand with a large tooth-like projection on the inner side.

Cbelanops deniatus
BB. Hand without any projection.

C. Fingers as long or nearly as long as the hand.
D. Hairs not distinctly clavate.
E. Inner margin of the hand not greatly swollen at
base.
F. Fingers as long as or longer than the hand.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

G. Colour pale reddish yellow, soft parts white.
Length one twelfth inch. Fingers a little
longer than the hand. A species found
along the seashore on Long Island, N. Y.

Chelanops tristis
GG. Cephalothorax very dark brown, abdominal
scutae brown. Length of body one eighth
inch. Fingers as long as the hand. A spe-
cies found in southern Arizona.

Chelanops ari%onensis
FF. Fingers a little shorter than the hand. De-
scribed from Isle Royale, Lake Superior.

Chelanops morosus
EE. Inner margin of the hand very much swollen at
the base, so that the hand is nearly as broad as long.
F. Palpi greenish. Occurs in Florida.

Chelanops latimanus
FF. Palpi nearly black. Described from Virginia.

Chelanops virginica
DD. Hairs distinctly clavate.

E. Inner margin of hand greatly swollen at the base.
F. Cephalothorax and palpi pale brownish yellow.
Florida species. Chelanops tumidus

FF. Cephalothorax and palpi dark brown. Cali-
fornia species. Chelanops validus
EE. Inner margin of the hand but weakly swollen ati
the base.
F. Palpi pale yellowish.

G. Florida species. Chelanops affinis

GG. A northern species. Chelanops pallidas

FF. Palpi dark red-brown.

G. Occurs in the East and Middle West.

Chelanops sanborni
GG. Occurs in the Far West.

H. Length one eighth inch; finger about as
long as the hand and slender.

Chelanops pallipes
HH. Length one twelfth inch; finger shorter
and stouter than in C. pallipes.

Chelanops dorsalis

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

CC. Fingers much shorter than the hand.

D. Two distinct eyes, hairs clavate. Described from
Texas. Chelanops texanus

DD. No eyes, hairs not clavate.

E. Pacific Coast species. Chelanops acuminatus

EE. Florida species.

F. Chelanops floridce

FF. Chelanops latus

Genus ATEMNUS (A-tem'nus)

The members of this genus are blind; they lack the transverse
furrow on the carapace; and second trochanters are visible on all
of the legs. A single species has been found in the United States.

Atemnus elongatus (A. e-long-ga'tus). — The cephalothorax
and legs are yellowish, the abdomen brownish, and the palpi
red-brown. Cephalothorax smooth, one and one half times as
long as broad. Length of body one eighth inch. This species
has been found only in Florida.

Genus GARYPUS (Ga-ry'pus)

The cephalothorax is longer than wide and quite suddenly
narrowed in front of the eyes; it is crossed by a transverse furrow,
but this is sometimes indistinct; and there is a longitudinal median
stria on the anterior part. The anterior pair of eyes are broadly
separated from the anterior margin of the carapace. The scutze
of the abdominal segments are divided by a median longitudinal
suture.

Only three species of this genus have been found in the
United States; all of these were described by Mr. Banks, who
separates them as follows:

A. Cephalothorax with lateral ridges and prolonged anterio-

lateral angles, second trochanters not distinct. Found in

the Yellowstone National Park. Garypus bicornis

AA. Cephalothorax without lateral ridges or prolonged angles;

posterior legs with distinct second trochanters.

B. Claw very much darker than the rest of the palpus. A

large species, measuring one sixth inch in length, found

in Florida. Garypus Jloridensis

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. Palpus all of one colour. A small species, measuring less
than one twelfth inch in length, found at Ithaca, N. Y.

Gary pus gr anu lat us

Genus OLP1UM (Ol'pi-um)

The cephalothorax is a little longer than wide and quite sud-
denly narrowed in front of the eyes; it is marked by neither trans-
verse nor longitudinal striae. The anterior eyes are separated
from the anterior margin of the carapace by a space about equal
to their diameter. The scutae of the abdominal segments are not
divided by a median longitudinal suture. The following is our
only known representative of this genus.

Olpium obscurum (O. ob-scu'rum).— - This is a small blackish
species measuring only one twelfth inch in length; it occurs in
Florida.

Family IDEOBSIID^E (Id-e-o-bi-si'i-dae)

The members of this family resemble the Cheliferidae in
having the spinneret of the chelicera long, slender, and trans-
parent, but differ in having the serrula attached only at the base
to the finger of the chelicera. The carapace is not divided by a
transverse suture and the abdominal scutae are entire. The femur
and tibia of the first two pairs of legs are short and stout.

Representatives of two genera have been found in the United
States; these can be separated by the number of eyes.

A. With two eyes. p. 51. Ideoronchus

AA. With four eyes. p. 50. Ideobsium

Genus IDEOB1SIUM (Id-e-o-bis'i-um)

The cephalothorax is smooth, without transverse sutures,
nearly as broad in front as behind. There are four distinct eyes.
The chelicerae are large, with a distinct spinneret. The abdomen
is moderately elongate, with the scutae entire. The palpi are of
moderate size, and with the fingers curved. The body bears
simple hairs.

Only two species have been found in the United States.

Ideobisium rufuJum{\. ru'fu-lum). — In this species the cepha-

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

lothorax is distinctly longer than broad. It occurs in the
Atlantic States.

Ideobisium tbeveneti (I. thev-e-ne'ti).— - This is a common
species in the States on the Pacific Coast. It differs from the
preceding in that the cephalothorax is about as broad as long.

Genus IDEORONCUS (Id-e-o-ron'cus)

The species of this genus differ from those of the preceding
in the possession of only a single pair of eyes.

Ideoroncus obscunts (I. ob-scu'rus).— - This, our only species
of the genus, is common in the Far West. It is a comparatively
large species, the adult female often measuring one sixth inch
in length.

Family OBISIID^E (O-bi-si'i-dae)

The members of this family are most easily recognized by the
form of the spinneret of the chelicera, which is merely a small
knob (Fig. 44); the serrula is attached only at the base; the caia-
pace is not divided by a transverse suture; the abdominal scutae
art entire; and the femur and tibia of the first two pairs of legs
are rather long and slender.

Four genera are represented in the United States; these can
be separated as follows:

A. Tibia of the pedipalp normal; chelicerae of medium size.
(Subfamily Obisiinae.)
B. With four eyes, except in cave forms; palpi short and
stout. P. 51. Obisium

BB. With no eyes; palpi very long and slender. P. 52.

Blothrus
AA. Tibia of pedipalp very short and cup-like; chelicera? very
large. (Subfamily Chthoniinae.)
B. With four eyes, except in cave forms; palpi long. P. 52.

Chthonius
BB. With only two eyes; palpi shorter. 1'. 5}. Lechytia

Genus OBISIUM (O-bis'i-um)

Five species of this genus have been found in the United
States; they are separated as follows:

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

A. With no eyes. A cave species described from Virginia.

Obisium cavicola
AA. With four eyes.

B. Tibia of palpus with the inner side first convex, then

nearly straight, fingers longer than the hand.

C. Hand about twice as long as broad. A large species

measuring one eighth inch in length. Described

from North Carolina. Obisium carolinensis

CC. Hand one and one half times as long as broad. A

small species common in the Northern States.

Obisium brunneum
BB. Tibia of palpus with inner side evenly convex.

C. Fingers very much longer than the hand. Found in

southern California. Obisium macilentum

CC. Fingers a little shorter than the hand. Supposed to

have been found in Florida. Obisium parvulum

Genus BLOTHRUS (Blo'thrus)

Our only species of this genus, Blothrus calif ornicus , occurs
in California.

Genus CHTHONIUS (Chtho'ni-us)

This and the following genus are remarkable for the great
size of the chelicerae (Fig. 48).

Six species of this genus have been
found in this country, they are separated
as follows:

BB.

Fig 48. CHTHONIUS
MjESTUS

A. With only two or with no eyes.

B. Hind legs about twice as long as the
abdomen. Found in caves in
Kentucky and in Indiana.

Chthonius packardi
Hind legs not much longer than
the abdomen. A cave species found in Virginia.

Chthonius coccus
AA. With four eyes.

B. Cephalothorax and chelicerae with small spines, each
tipped with a hair. Found in Florida.

Chthonius spinosus

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. Without any spines.

C. Eyes close together, almost touching. Found at Ithaca,
N. Y. Cbtbonius mcestus

CC. Eyes distinctly separated.

I). Hind eye about twice its diameter from front eye;

cephalothorax much wider in front than behind.

Has been found in New York, Pennsylvania, and

Florida. Cbtbonius pennsylvanicus

DD. Hind eye not twice its diameter from front eye;

cephalothorax but little wider in front than behind.

Found in New York, District of Columbia, and

Virginia. Cbtbonius longipalpus

Genus LECHYTIA (Le-chyt'i-a;

A single species of this genus, Lecbytia pacifica, has been found
in the State of Washington.

Order PHALANGIDA*

The Harvestmen

The harvestmen are very common in most parts of the
United States. They are well-known to children in this country
under the name daddy-long-legs, but as this term is also some-
times applied to crane-flies, the name harvestmen is preferable.
In some sections of the country the harvestmen are known as
grandfather-graybeards. It was probably a misunderstanding
of this name that led Wood ('68) to state that in northern New
York they are called "Grab for Gray-bears." The writer spent
his boyhood in northern New York and during that period heard
only the name grandfather-graybeard applied to these creatures.

The name harvestmen was probably suggested by the fact
that they are most often seen at harvest time. A similar term,
faucbeurs or hay-makers, is applied to them by the French. The
Germans call them Afterspinncn or pseudo-spiders. ( )ther English
names are harvest-spiders and shepherd-spiders.

Most harvestmen can be recognized by their very long and

* The original form of the name used above was Phalangita, a family name proposed by Latreille
in 1802. It was chanced to Phalangides by Leach in 1815. It ia now spelled Phalangida for the sake
of uniformity with the Other ordinal names of Arachnida. The name Opil tones, which is used by
some writers, was proposed l>y MindevaU in 1833; there is no good reason lor substituting (his for
the older name.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

slender legs (Fig. 49), although some species have comparatively
short ones. The carapace is indistinctly if at all segmented.
The abdomen is not constricted off from the cephalothorax and
is short and broad.

The sternites of the cephalothorax consist of a labium, which
is well-developed in some forms and greatly reduced in others.

(Photograph by M. V . Slingerland)
Fig. 49- A HARVESTMAN

and a sternum, which is more or less reduced as a result of either
the approximation of the coxa? or of a forward thrust of abdominal
sternites.

The abdomen consists of nine segments, the anal tergite
being the ninth. But the sternites of the abdomen are more or
less reduced in number, sometimes to five, either by the con-
solidation of two or more or by the suppression of some of them,
or by both methods. The first abdominal sternite is termed the
genital; the second, the tracheal; and the eighth the anal. "In
many genera of the suborder Mecostethi the eighth abdominal

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

sternite shows indications of being composed of two sternites,
which would bring the total number of sternites up to nine, thus
equalling the tergites in number." (Pocock '02.)

The various forms of the labium, the sternum, and the
sternites of the first two abdominal segments afford characters
for limiting the larger divisions of the order.

The eyes are only two in number in our species and are sit-
uated on a prominent tubercle, like a lookout tower, near the
middle of the cephalothorax, an eye looking out on each side.

Near the anterior margin of the cephalothorax, on each side
opposite the attachment of the first pair of legs, there is a small
opening; these are sometimes called the lateral pores and some-
times' the openings of Krobn's glands. They are the openings
of scent glands which have been described by Krohn ('67) and by
Rossler ('82).

The respiratory organs are tubular tracheae, which open by
a pair of spiracles situated on the ventral side at the juncture of
the lateral margins of the cephalo-
thorax and the second abdominal ster-
nite. Secondary spiracles have been
found on the legs of some members of
this order by Hansen (See Loman '96).

The reproductive organs open on

., , , ,. . , , Fig. so. CADDO AGn.IS WITH

the boundary between the cephalo- the ovipositor exposed
thorax and the abdomen on the

middle line of the ventral aspect of the body; the opening is
covered by a prolongation of the sternite of the first abdominal
segment, which is called for this reason the genital sternite.
The female is provided with a large ovipositor, and the male
with a large penis; each of these structures is usually retracted
within a sac. The form of these organs varies in differenl
species and has been used by systematists for distinguishing
species. It is well therefore to' preserve specimens with these
organs exposed (Fig. 50). This is "a simple operation, requir-
ing only that the abdomen of the living specimen be compressed
between the thumb and finger, when these organs will be extruded.
and if the specimen is immediately chopped into alcohol will or-
dinarily remain exposed" (Weed '89a). As the first abdominal
sternum is thrust far forward the opening of the reproductive
organs in some tonus is not far removed from the mouth.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

It is not as easy to distinguish the sexes of harvestmen as
it is those of spiders, where a glance at the palpi is sufficient.
With some harvestmen there are no obvious secondary sexual
characters; but with most of them the sexes differ in size, coloura-
tion, and the proportions of the appendages. Usually the body
of the male is smaller and shorter and more brilliantly coloured
than that of the female; but the markings of the female are often
replaced by a uniform tint in the male. The granulations and
spines are usually more marked in the male; and the legs are
usually longer. The form of the chelicerae and of the pedipalps
often differ in the two sexes, but no general statement can be
made of these differences.

The chelicerae are three-jointed and chelate, the third joint
forming the finger of a chela. They are comparatively long and
in some forms they are quite stout. The pedipalps are leg-like
in form; but are much shorter than the legs; a tarsal claw is usually
present; the coxae of the pedipalps bear endites, which are more
or less membranous. A similar pair of more or less membranous
endites are borne by the coxae of the first pair of legs. These
two pairs of endites have been described as two pairs of jaws
but in the forms examined by the writer they are hardly fitted
for chewing. The legs are very long and slender except that the
coxae are stout; but the coxae on account of their fixed condition
appear to belong to the body instead of to appendages; the first
two pairs of legs bear movable endites in some forms. The tarsi
and sometimes other segments of the legs are divided into smaller
portions by what are termed false articulations. The tarsal claws
vary in number and in form.

Although the harvestmen have stilt-like legs, they do not
raise the body much above the ground when they walk, but carry
it low down, with the middle part of their legs high in the air.
When disturbed they stand on six legs and move the second
pair about in the air; this suggests that perhaps the tips of the
second pair of legs are furnished with especially sensitive tactile
organs.

In the North most harvestmen die in the autumn; a single
species, Leiobunum formosum, is known to live over the winter
as an adult instead of depositing eggs and dying in the autumn,
as do the other species (Weed' 89 a). In the South more of them
hibernate; they hide under rubbish during the winter.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The eggs are laid in the ground, under stones, or in crevices
of wood. They are placed in position by means of the ovipositor
which can be extruded to a great length (Fig. 50). Henking ('88)
figures a female in the act of depositing her eggs in the ground,
and represents the ovipositor three times as long as the entire
body of the animal.

Unlike the eggs of spiders, those of the harvestmen which
are laid in the autumn do not hatch till the following spring.
The species observed by Henking remained six months in the
egg. The young moulted as soon as they reached the surface of
the ground; they were white as snow except the eyes, which were
coal-black; the abdomen was pointed behind showing a one-
jointed vestige of a postabdomen. In a short time the body
becomes of the same colour as the adult. The newly hatched young
use the second pair of legs as feelers in the same way as does the
adult; but they are apt to hide under stones or other objects and
rarely attract attention till midsummer, when they are more
conspicuous.

The adults also ordinarily hide during the day, but at twilight
wander about in search of food. Some species apparently often
migrate from the fields where they were hatched to the vicinity
of houses, barns, and out-buildings where they congregate in
large numbers; occasionally they congregate in a similar manner
on the trunks of trees.

It was said long ago by a German writer that "they spring
and pounce upon their victim as the cat upon the mouse, and
seize it with their palpi as if with hands." This is perhaps the
foundation for the statement made in many books that the
harvestmen feed on living insects. But Henking ('88), who kept
large numbers of them under as nearly as possible natural con-
ditions, found that they shunned living insects and fed only on
those that they found dead. They also fed on various kinds of
soft vegetables and fruits, from which they pressed the fluid by
means of their chelicerae. On the other hand, Weed ('93). states
that Liobnnum politum when in confinement eagerly devours
plant lice; and Banks ('01) states that they feed mostly on living
insects.

It is also often stated that the harvestmen eat solid food.

1 his, however, needs confirmation. Bernard ('96) found, in

some sections of an unknown Phalangid, that behind the brain

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

the oesophagus formed a large muscular "crop" which was full of
solid particles. As there were none in the stercoral pocket, he
concluded that this is some special arrangement of the sucking-
apparatus and that the solid matter is again ejected through the
mouth.

It has been suggested that the great length of the legs com-
bined with the fact that they easily separate from the body serves
as a means of protection from such animals as would prey upon
the harvestmen. The body is fenced in, as it were, by a hedge
of legs. In attempting to capture the harvestmen the enemy
is almost certain to seize hold of a leg and to be left with only it
in its grasp.

It is probable that this means of protection is only brought
into play as -a last resort; for they appear to have few enemies.
This is doubtless due to the odour of the fluid secreted by the scent
glands. The protective fluid is often excreted in considerable
quantity, so as to be readily seen, when these creatures are
handled.

No silk glands have been found in this order; and harvestmen
make no nests or retreats.

The chief works on the harvestmen of the United States are
those of Wood ('68), Weed ('92/7 and '93), and Banks ('93^,
'93ft, '94^, and '01). In the last cited paper Banks gives a
synopsis of our species which has been of great service in the
preparation of the following account of them. The European
works which I have used most are those of Simon ('79), Pocock
('02), and Cambridge ('04 -'05).

The order Phalangida is divided into three suborders; one
of these, the Cyphophthalmi, is not represented in our fauna; the
other two can be separated as follows:

A. Sternum of the first abdominal segment not reaching in

front of the hind coxae. P. 58. Mecostethi

AA. Sternum of the first abdominal segment extending much in

front of the hind coxae. P. 64. Plagiostethi

Suborder MECOSTETHI (Mec-os-te'thi)

In this suborder the sternum of the first abdominal segment
extends but little if any in front of the hind coxae and the sternum
of the cephalothorax is narrow and long, lying between the coxae

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

of the first three pairs of legs (Fig. 51). It is to this fact that

the subordinal name Mecostethi refers, being derived from the

Greek words mekos, length, and stcthos,

breast. The hind tarsi are either furnished

with two claws or with a compound claw;

the tibia and tarsus of the pedipalps are

more or less depressed; and the hind legs

are usually the longest. This suborder is

called the Laniatores (Lan-i-a-to'res) by

some writers.

The suborder Mecostethi is repre-
sented in our fauna by two families, which
can be separated as follows:

—s.

Fig. si. VENTRAL

ASPECT IF CYNORTA

SAYI s, spiracle

A. Hind coxae united to the first abdominal segment at the base,
but free at the apex; the spiracles are obscure. P. 61.

Phalangodid/e

AA. Hind coxae united to the first abdominal segment throughout

their length; the spiracles are distinct. P. 59- Cosmetid^e

Family COSMETIDiE (Cos-met'i-dae)

The second pair of legs are without endites. The pedipalps
are shorter than the body, with the tibia and tarsus depressed,
and with the tarsal claw about half as long as the tarsus. The
pedipalps are usually appressed to the face so as to fit over the
chelicerae. The eye-tubercle is low, without coniform tubercles.
The spiracles are exposed.

Genus CYNORTA (Cy-nor'ta)

The genus Cynorta, our only representative of the Cosmetidae,
is a subtropical genus. Three species belonging to it have been
found in the warmer portions of the United States. These can
be separated as follows:

A. With a pair of prominent lobes near the hind end of the cara-

paceeach having a prominent acute spine. Cynorta ornata

AA. Without prominent lobes near the hind end of the carapace.

B. With two small rounded tubercles near the hind end of

the carapace. Cynorta sayii

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. With neither spines nor tubercles near the hind end of
the carapace. Cynorta bimaculata

Cynorta sayii (C. say'i-i). — This is our most widely distrib-
uted species of the genus, occurring in the Gulf States and
extending as far north as Missouri and Kansas. The body is
nearly one fourth inch in length, of a rusty colour mottled with a

darker shade. In well-marked
individuals there is a Y-shaped
yellow strip back of the eyes
(Fig. 52) and a transverse band
near the hind edge of the cara-
pace. The stem of the Y is
sometimes wanting and some-
times it extends to the trans-
verse band. Between the arms
of the Y and the transverse band
there is in some individuals in-
dications of two other transverse
bands. Sometimes all of the
white marks are wanting. Near
the middle of the carapace there
is a pair of small tubercles, and
there is a second, somewhat larger
pair near the hind margin just
in front of the transverse yellow
band.

Cynorta ornata (C. or-na'ta).
This species closely resembles the
preceding in size and markings,
but can be easily distinguished
by the presence of a pair of prominent acute spines borne on
a pair of lobes in the position occupied by the second pair of
tubercles in the preceding species (Fig. 53). This species is found
in the southeastern part of the United States.

Cynorta bimaculata (C. bi-mac-u-la'ta).— - This is a smaller
species, measuring one sixth inch in length, found in southern
California. The dorsum is brownish red, with two long, some-
what lunate white spots near the end of the carapace; the venter is
red. The body is finely granulate, without large tubercles or spines.

Fig. 52. CYNORTA SAYII

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Family PHALANGODID^E (Phal-an-god'i-dae)

In this family the hind coxae are united to the first abdominal
segment at the base, but are free at the apex. The second pair
of legs have distinct endites. The pedipalps are robust and about
as long as the body. The spiracles are indistinct.

Our Phalangodidae represent five genera;
these can be separated by the following table:

A. Tarsus of the last pair of legs furnished with
a simple single claw. P. 61. Cyptobunus
AA. Tarsus of the last pair of legs furnished
either with a compound claw or with
two simple claws.
B. Tarsus of the last pair of legs with
one compound claw; palpi not as long
as the body; eyes present. P. 63.
BB. Tarsus of the last pair of legs with two simple claws.
C. Eye-tubercle arising from the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax; palpi shorter than the body. P. 04.

Sitalces
CC. Eye-tubercle back from the margin of the cephalo-
thorax; palpi longer than the body.
D. Tarsus of the second legs about twice as long as the
body, its segments very slender; eyes absent.
P. 64. Phalangodes

DD. Tarsus of the second legs about as long as the body;
eyes often present. P 62. Scotolemon

Fig. 53. CYNORTA
ORNATA

SCLEROBUNUS

Genus CYPTOBUNUS (Cyp-to-bu'nus)

d.
Fig. 54. CYPTOBUNUS CAVICOLUS

a, body and cheliccra.- b, tibia of pedipalp r. tarsus of pcdipalp
d, tarsus of leg (after Banks')

The only known
representative of
this genus was
recently discovered
by Professor Coolev
in a cave in .Mon-
tana and was de-
scribed by Mr.
Banks. It differs

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

from all other members of this suborder in having the posterior
tarsi armed with a single simple claw (Fig. 54J). The legs
are very slender; the second pair are plainly longer than the
fourth. The eye-tubercle is rather large, not very high,
rounded, with two large black eye-spots above. The tibiae and
tarsi of the palpi are depressed and armed laterally with long,
slender spines, each spine consisting of a basal part, truncate
at tip and a long terminal bristle arising beneath a short spur
or apophysis (Fig. 54b).

Cyptobunus cavicolus (C. ca-vic'o-lus). — This is a pale whitish
nyaline species, with black eye-spots. Figure 54a represents
the outline of the body. The length of the body of the only known
specimen is less than one twelfth inch.

Genus SCOTOLEMON (Sco-to-le'mon)

The eye-tubercle arises some distance back from the anterior
margin of the carapace but not far from it. Eyes are present
in some species, absent in others. The pedipalps are longer than
the body. The tarsus of the second legs is about as long as the
body; and the tarsus of the fourth legs bears two simple claws.

Four species have been found in the United States; these
can be separated as follows:

A. Eye-tubercle ends in a spine. Scotolemon spinifera

AA. Eye-tubercle without spine.

B. Colour pale yellowish or straw-yellow. Cave species.
C. Tarsus of the second legs with short segments.

Scotolemon Jlavescens
CC. Tarsus of the second legs with long slender segments.
* Scotolemon calijornica

B.B. Colour yellowish brown; not cave species.

Scotolemon brunnea

Scotolemon spinifera (S. spi-nif'e-ra).— - This species is easily
distinguished from our other three species of the genus by the
form of the eye-tubercle, which ends in a high, sharp, prolonged
spine. The eyes are black and placed unusually far apart. The
body is spiny. This harvestman was found in Florida.

Scotolemon calijornica (S. cal-i-for'ni-ca). — The colour is pale

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

yellowish with the dorsum of the abdomen rather darker. The
eye-tubercle is low, rounded, close to the anterior margin, but bears
no eyes. Length of body less than one twelfth inch. The species
was described from specimens taken in Alabaster Cave, California.

Scotolcmon jlavescens (S. flav'es-cens). — Body broad and stout
uniformly straw-yellow, including the appendages. The eye-
tubercle is large and high; the eyes are distinct, black, and situated
near the base of the conical tubercle. Pedipalps less than twice
as long as the body, but nearly twice as long as the cephalothorax.
Length of body one eighth inch. This is a cave species found in
Kentucky, Indiana, and Virginia.

Scotolemon brunnea (S. brun'ne-a). — Body yellowish brown,
shield of abdomen mottled with irregular blackish markings,
posterior margins of ventral segments, and of the last few dorsal
segments margined with black. Eye-tubercle large, but blunt,
and not far from the anterior margin of the carapace. Length
of body one twelfth inch.

This species occurs in North Carolina; it was found by sifting
damp leaves in the woods.

Genus SCLEROBUNUS (Scler-o-bu'nus)

The posterior tarsi are armed with a single claw but it is a

compound one, there being a spur or branch-claw on each side

toward the base. The palpi are not as long as the body. The

eyes are present. Two species have been found in the West.

These can be separated by difference in colour.

A. Colour red, tips of legs black. Sderobunus robustus

AA. Colour brown, tips of legs yellowish. Sderobunus brunneus

Sderobunus robustus (S. ro-bus'tus). — The colour of the bod
is deep reddish, with the hinder segments finely bordered with
brown. Body pyriform, two thirds as broad as long. Length
of body one seventh inch.

Sderobunus brunneus (S. brun'ne-us). — The colour of the

body is brown, paler on the cephalothorax; legs brown, a little

darker than the body, their tips yellow. The dorsum and legs

have many little tubercles, each tipped with a stiff hair or bristle.

1 he legs are very short. Length of body one twelfth inch.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Genus SITALCES (Si-tal'ces)

The eye-tubercle arises from the anterior margin of the
carapace. The pedipalps are shorter than the body. The tarsus
of the fourth legs bears two simple claws.

Sttalces calif ornicus (S. cal-i-for'ni-cus). — The colour of the
body is yellow, venter paler, legs whitish toward the tips. Body
oval, truncate in front, rounded behind. Eye-tubercle large,
arising from the anterior margin of the carapace, and about one
half as long as the cephalothorax, much roughened and finely
granulated; eyes near the base of the tubercle. Legs short.
Length of body one twelfth inch. Occurs in southern California.

Genus PHALANGODES, (Phal-an-go'des)

The eye-tubercle arises some distance back from the anterior
margin of the carapace, but it bears no eyes. The pedipalps
are longer than the body. The tarsus of the second pair of legs
is about twice as long as the body, and the tarsus of the fourth
pair of legs bears two simple claws.

Phalangodes armata (P. ar-ma'ta). — This, our only species
of the genus, is found in the Mammoth Cave and in other caves.

The body is from one eighth to one sixth
inch in length. All of the legs are re-
markably long and slender. The colour
of the adult is whitish straw-yellow, of
the young, white.

Suborder PLAGIOSTETHI
(Pla-gi-os-te'thi)

In the members of this suborder the
sternum of the first abdominal segment
extends much in front of the hind coxae
(Fig. 55). A result of this forward thrust
of this sternite is that the sternum of the
cephalothorax is short and transverse; this
suggested the name Plagiostethi, which is from the Greek words
plagios, transverse, and stcthos, breast. The tarsi of the legs
are furnished each with but one simple claw; the tibia and tarsus
of the pedipalps are cylindrical; and the second legs are the

Fig. 55. VENTRAL ASPECT
OF LEIOBUNUM VENT-
RICOSUM

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

longest. This suborder is called the Palpatores (Pal-pa-to'res)
by some writers.

The Plagiostethi includes five families, four of which are
represented in the United States; these can be separated by the
following table:

A. Last segment of the pedipalp with a claw at the end, this

segment longer than the preceding one except in the

male of Protolopbus. P. 65. Phalangiid/e

AA. Last segment of palpus with no claw at the tip, this segment

much shorter than the preceding one.

B. Ocular tubercle prolonged into a plate which extends

beyond the front margin of the cephalothorax. P. 79.

TrOGULID/'E

BB. Ocular tubercle not prolonged into a plate.

C. Chelicerae very long, longer than the body. P. 76.

IsCHYROPSALID/E

CC. Chelicerae of moderate length. P. 77.

Nemastomatid/e

Family PHALANGIID/E (Phal-an-gi'i-dae)

In the Phalangiidae the last segment of the pedipalps is much
longer than the penultimate one and is armed with a small claw;
the coxa of the fourth leg is united near its base on the posterior
side to the tracheal sternite of the abdomen; the endite of the
second leg is directed horizontally inward; and tibial spiracles
are present.

The genera of the Phalangiidae occurring in our fauna are
separated by Banks ('01) as follows:

A. Male with the palpus enlarged, last joint shorter than the

penultimate; female with the patella of the palpus

provided with a long branch; palpal claw smooth; a row

of teeth on sides of coxae. P. 67. Protolopus

AA. Last joint of palpus longer than the penultimate; patella

of palpus without a branch in the adult.

B. Eye-tubercle of enormous size; three long spines on the

femur of the palpus. P. 68. Caddo

BB. Eye-tubercle of normal size.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

C. A group of spinules on the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax and the eye-tubercle spinose; palpal
claw smooth; rarely if ever with lateral rows of teeth
on coxae; frequently with spines on the femur of the
palpus.
D. Femur of palpus provided with prominent spines.
E. No false articulations in the metatarsus of the
first legs; eye-tubercle more remote from the an-
terior margin. P. 70. Lacinius
EE. At least one false articulation in the metatarsus
of the first legs; eye-tubercle nearer to the
margin. P. 70. Oligolophus
DD. Femurof palpus not furnished with prominent spines.
E. Femora and tibiae of the first and third pairs of
legs thickened; coxa of the second legs com-
pletely shut out by those of the first and third
legs. P. 71. Globipes
EE. Femora and tibiae of the first and third legs normal ;
coxa of the second legs not shut out by those
the first and third legs.
F Two prominent supracheliceral teeth; dorsum
punctate. P. 71. Homolophus
FF. No such teeth.

G. The femur of the first legs longer than the

width of the body. P. 69. Phalangium

GG. The femur of the first legs shorter than the

width of the body. P. 69. Mitopus

CC. Either with the eye-tubercle smooth or, if spinose,

then no group of spinules on the anterior margin of

the cephalothorax.

D. Palpal claw denticulate; adult with a row of teeth

on the sides of the coxae, distinct at least on the

anterior side of the coxae of the first pair of legs;

legs usually long.

E. Body very hard and granulate above and below;

legs very short; fourth pair of legs nearly as

long as the second pair. P. 76. Mesosoma

EE. Body softer, although often subcoriaceous; rarely

granulate below; legs longer, fourth pair much

shorter than the second pair.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

F. Femur of the first pair of legs longer than the body

or in some females a little shorter, but longer

than the width of the body. P. 73. Leiobunum

FF. Femur of the first legs shorter than the body,

in females not so long as the width of the body.

P. 75. Hadrobunus

DD. Palpal claw smooth; no such rows of teeth on coxae;

legs usually shorter.

E. Inner margin of patella of pedipalps extended;

body very hard and rough; eye-tubercle

spinose; coxae of the third and fourth pairs of

legs enlarged in the males. P. 72.

Trachyrhinus

EE. Inner margin of patella of pedipalps not extended,

or at least with the body quite soft.

F Legs slender and long as in Leiobunum; coxae

of the second legs not shut out by the coxae of

the first and third pair of legs. P. 73.

Leuronychus

FF. Legs much shorter; femora of the first pair of

legs thickened or not as long as the width of

the body; eye-tubercle smooth.

G. Femora and tibiae of the first and third pairs

of legs thickened; coxa of the second legs

shorter than that of the first. P. 72.

Eurybunus
GG. Femora and tibiae of the first and third pairs
of legs not thickened; coxa of the second legs
about as large as that of the first. P. 71.

Leptobunus

Genus PROTOLOPHUS (Pro-tol'o-phus)

This genus differs from all other members of the Phalangiidae
occurring in our fauna in having the last segment of the pedipalps
of the male shorter than the penultimate, and in that the patella
of the pedipalps of the female is provided with a long branch.
There is a median pair of large tubercles on the dorsal aspect o\
each of the first five abdominal segments. Two species are found
in the Far West.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Protolophus tuberculatus (P. tu-ber-cu-la'tus). — The cephalo-
thorax is gray, the dorsum of the abdomen darker, somewhat
reddish brown; there is a broad, darker, median strip, extending
from the anterior margin of the cephalothorax to the sixth ab-
dominal segment. The abdominal tubercles are unarmed. Oc-
curs in Texas and California.

Protolophus singularis (P. sin-gu-la'ris). — This species is
similar to the preceding but differs in that the abdominal tubercles
bear from two to four spines. Occurs in California.

Genus CADDO (Cad'do)

The eye-tubercle is of enormous size, covering the greater
part of the cephalothorax (Fig. 56); it is wider than long, smooth,

with a broad median furrow. The eyes
are very large and situated at each side
of the ocular tubercle. Only two species
are known.

Caddo agilis (C. ag'i-lis). — This is
the larger of the two species, attaining

Fig. 56. CADDO AGILIS , . , f • . u , t-m i

s a length of one sixth inch. 1 he colour

is brownish with a silvery white longitudinal
median band. The trochanter of the pedi-
palps is armed below with only scattered
stiff hairs. The femur of the pedipalps
is armed with three large spine-tipped
tubercles which are evenly spaced on the
basal half (Fig. 57a).

This species has been found in New
York, District of Columbia, and Ontario.

Caddo boopis (C. bo-o'pis). — The length
of the body is only about one twenty-fifth
of an inch. The color is dark brownish
without the white median band. The trochanter of the pedipalps
is armed beneath with a large tubercle bearing two spines, one
large and one small. The femur of the pedipalps bears three
large spines, two close together near the base and one near the
middle of the segment (Fig. 576).

As yet this species has been found only at Ithaca, N. Y.
It was taken by Professor Crosby in sifting leaves on a heavily
wooded bank.

Fig. 57. TROCHANTER

AND FEMUR OF THE

PEDIPALP OF

a, Caddo agilis b, Caddo
boopis

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Genus PHALANGIUM (Pha-lan'gi-um)

The last segment of the pedipalps is longer than the penul-
timate, and the femur of the pedipalps is not furnished with
prominent spines; there is a group of spinules on the anterior
margin of the cephalothorax and the eye-tubercle is spinose; and
the femur of the first legs is longer than the width of the body.
Two species occur in the United States.

Phalangium longipalpis (P. lon-gi-pal'pis). The palpi are
very long, in the male they are longer than the body, in the
female they are longer than the width of the body; the second
segment of the chelicera of the male is prolonged above in a spur,
that of the female is normal. The length of the body is a little
over one fourth inch. The species was described from Arkansas.
it occurs abundantly in New York.

Phalangium cinereum (P. ci-ner'e-um). — The palpi are much
shorter than in the preceding species, in the female they are
scarcely as long as the width of the body; the chelicerae of the male
are normal. The length of the body varies from one fifth to a
little more than one fourth inch.

This species is widely distributed in the Northern States.
Weed in writing of it states as follows: 'This species is pre-
eminently what may be called an indoor form. It abounds
especially in sheds, outhouses, and neglected board-piles, being
rarely found in the open field. Its colour especially fits it for
crawling over weather-beaten boards, making it inconspicuous
against such a background. During the day it is usually quiet,
but at dusk and on cloudy days it moves about quite rapidly."

Genus M1TOPUS (Mit'o-pus)

The harvestmen of this genus agree with Phalangium in the
characteristics given above except that the femur of the first legs
is shorter than the width of the body. Three species occur in
our fauna.

Mitopus californicus (M. cal-i-for'ni-cus). — The tibia of
the second legs is much longer than the metatarsus of these legs;
there is one false articulation in the metatarsus of the first legs;
and the eye-tubercle is about its diameter from the anterior
margin of the carapace. The species occurs in California.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Mitopus dorsalis (M. dor-sa'lis). — In the second legs the tibia
is subequal to or shorter than the metatarsus; there is no false
articulation in the metatarsus of the 'first legs; the colour of the
body is gray and white. This is an Alaskan species.

Mitopus montanus (M. mon-ta'nus.) — This species agrees,
with the preceding in having the tibia of the second legs subequal
to or shorter than the metatarsus; but differs in having two false
articulations in the metatarsus of the first legs and in being brown
or black and white. It occurs in New Hampshire.

Genus LACINIUS (La-cin'i-us)

In this and in the following genus there is a group of spinules
on the anterior margin of the carapace, the eye-tubercle is spinose,
the palpal claw is smooth, and the femur of the palpus is provided
with prominent spines. In this genus there are no false articula-
tions in the metatarsus of the first legs, and the eye-tubercle is
more remote from the anterior margin than in the following genus.

Lacinius texanus (L. tex-a'nus). — The metatarsi of the first
and third legs are banded in the middle, and there are very promi-
nent spines at the tips "of the femora and patellae. Occurs in
Texas.

Lacinius ohioensis (L. o-hi-o-en'sis). — The metatarsi of the
first and third legs are not banded; the legs are longer than in
the preceding species and the spines at the tips of the femora and
patellae are less prominent. Occurs in the Eastern and Middle
States.

Genus OL1GOLOPHUS (Ol-i-gol'o-phus)

There is a group of spinules on the anterior margin of the
cephalothorax and the eye-tubercle is spinose; the palpal claw is
smooth; the femur of the palpus is armed with prominent spines;
and there is at least one false articulation in the metatarsus
of the first leg.

Oligolophus pictus — -The colour of the dorsum is mottled
ash-gray with a dark central band extending the whole length
of the body; this band is suddenly contracted near the posterior
margin of the cephalothorax, then gradually expanded until it
reaches the end of the anterior third of the abdomen, where it is
suddenly contracted; behind this point the band is again widened

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

and contracted. The body measures about one fifth inch in
length. This species is found in New England: and is abundant
in New York.

Genus HOMOLOPHUS (Ho-mol'o-phus)

There are quite prominent spines upon the cephalothorax
and eye-tubercle and transverse rows of them on the abdomen.
The legs are thicker than usual, the anterior femora being much
thicker than the eye-tubercle is wide. There are two prominent
supracheliceral teeth.

Homolophus biceps (H. bi'ceps). — The dorsum is pale
brownish with a great many small white spots and darker brown
punctures; eye-tubercle with a broad white stripe above; and there
is a bifid white stripe from the eye-tubercle to the anterior margin ;
venter, sternum, and coxae whitish; spiracles and some spots
on the venter brown. The male measures one sixth inch in length;
the female, one fifth. Occurs from Colorado to Washington
State.

Genus GLOB I PES (Glob'i-pes)

The principal character of this genus is the enlarged femora
and tibiae of the first and third pairs of legs; the eye-tubercle is
low and with a few spines; the legs are short; but the femur of
the second legs is longer than the body and more than twice as
long as the femur of the first legs. There are no false articulations
in the metatarsus of the first legs. The palpi are normal. A
single species has been described.

Globipes spinulatus (G. spin-u-la'tus).— - The colour of the
body is brown or reddish brown, tip of abdomen more gray,
dorsum somewhat mot lied with brown. The female has two
median white spots near the tip of the abdomen. Length of body
one seventh inch. Occurs in California.

Genus LEPTOBUNUS (Lep-to-bu'nus)

The legs are short, with the segments but little thickened:
the femur of the first legs is much shorter than the body; frequently
the femur of the second legs is not as long as the body. The
eye-tubercle is narrow and is usually smooth. Two western
species have been described.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Leptobunus borealis (L. bo-re-a'lis). — The apices of the coxae
are dark; the tibia of the first legs is marked with one dark band;
the palpus is lineate with brown. Occurs in Alaska.

Leptobunus californicus (L. cal-i-for'ni-cus). — The apices
of the coxae are pale; the tibia of the first legs is marked with two
dark bands; and the palpus is not lineate. Occurs in California.

Genus EURYBUNUS (Eu-ry-bu'nus)

The eye-tubercle is very low and smooth; the cephalothorax
with an elevation on the anterior margin bearing a few small
spines. The segments of the dorsal shield of the abdomen are
so closely united that their sutures are hardly discernible. The
femora, patellae, and tibiae of the first and third legs are enlarged;
the femur of the second legs is barely twice as long as that of the
first legs, and a little longer than the body; the metatarsus of
the first legs is without false articulations.

Eurybunus brunneus (E. brun'ne-us). — The body is very
smooth; the fourth leg is nearly as long as the second. Occurs
in California.

Eurybunus spinosus (E. spi-no'sus). — The body is armed with
transverse rows of spinules; the fourth leg is much shorter than
the second. Occurs in California.

Eurybunus formosus (E. for-mo'sus). — This is a beautiful
species, which occurs in Texas. The dorsum is a rich dark brown,
with a medium elongate white spot near the tip; the sides just
behind the legs are also white, and the legs are ringed with white.
The length of the body is nearly one third inch.

Genus TRACHYRH1NUS (Trach-y-rhi'nus)

The inner margin of the patella of the pedipalps is extended
at the tip into a spur-like prolongation; the body is very hard and
rough; the eye-tubercle is spinose; and the coxae of the third and
fourth legs are enlarged in the males.

Tracbyrbinus favosus (T. fa-vo'sus). — The body is very hard;
the dorsum is nearly square, quite level, has projecting angles on
the anterior lateral corners and is coarsely punctate. The colour
is grayish, spotted with black, and with a central vase-like mark-
ing faintly indicated; the coxae are unicolorous, and the legs
mostly black. Occurs in Nebraska and Colorado.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Tracbyrhinus marmoratus (T. mar-mo-ra'tus). — This species
was described from New Mexico. It differs from the preceding
in having the coxae pale spotted with brown and in having the
legs mostly pale.

Genus LEURONYCHUS (Leu-ron'y-chus)

Similar in most respects to Leiobuniim, but with the palpal
claw smooth, and without the lateral rows of teeth on the coxae.
Two species have been found in the Far West.

Leuronychus pacificus (L. pa-cif'i-cus). — The body is marked
with a brown dorsal stripe; the patellae of the legs are brown lined
with white. This species occurs in California and in Washington.

Leuronychus parvulus (L. par'vu-lus). — This species differs
from the preceding in lacking the dorsal stripe and in that the
patellae are not lineate. It occurs in Washington.

Genus LEIOBUNUM (Lei-o-bu'num)

In this genus the cuticula is soft or subcoriaceous. The
anterior and lateral borders of the carapace are smooth. The
eye-tubercle is relatively small, smooth, or rarely provided with
small, slightly distinct tubercles; it is widely separated from the
anterior border. The legs are very long and slender; the fourth
pair are much shorter than the second pair. The palpal claw is
denticulate.

The genus Leiobunum is the largest of this order in our fauna,
including sixteen species. The males are separated by Banks
('01) as follows:

A A distinct spur on the femur of the palpus; dorsumyellowish,

without stripe; trochanters concolorous with the coxae.

Occurs in the Northern States. Leiobunum calcar

\A. Without a spur on the femur of the palpus.

B. Palpus, except the tarsus, mostly black.

C. Dorsum dark, often with two large pale spots behind;

trochanters usually pale. Occurs on the West coast.

Leiobunum exilipes

CC. Dorsum pale yellowish, no stripe; trochanters and

bases of legs black. Occurs in the Eastern States.

Leiobunum nigropalpi

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

BB. Palpus yellowish or brownish.

C. Femur, patella, and tibia of the palpus plainly
thickened, dorsum with a black stripe, trochanters
dark brown. Found in the District of Columbia.

Leiobunum crassipalpis
CC. Palpal segments not thickened.

D. Femur of the palpus very long, curved, extending
much above the surface of the cephalothorax,
dorsum with a distinct black stripe, trochanters
black. A widely distributed species.

Leiobunum vittatum

DD. Femur of the palpus shorter, dorsum without a

distinct black stripe.

E. Dorsum dark, with two large yellowish spots on

the union of the cephalothorax and abdomen.

Occurs in California. Leiobunum bimacuJatum

EE. Not so marked.

F. Apex of the tibia of the second pair of legs white,
trochanters black, body short. Occurs in
the Eastern States. Leiobunum longipes

FF. Apex of the second tibia not white.

G. Apex of the femur of the first pair of legs white
preceded by a black band, coxae pale out-
side. Occurs in New Mexico and in Texas.

Leiobunum townsendi
GG. First femur not so marked.

H. Trochanters dark, contrasted in colour with
the coxae.
1. Legs black, dorsum dark brown, eye-
tubercle slightly spinulate. Occurs in
Ohio. Leiobunum nigripes

II. Legs pale, sometimes marked with black.
J. First femur barely as long as the body,
tips of femora and tibiae dark brown
or black, eye-tubercle nearly smooth.
Occurs in the Eastern States

Leiobunum formosum
JJ. First femur plainly longer than the body,
eye-tubercle spinulate, legs not so dis-
tinctly marked with black.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

K. Abdomen tapering behind, dorsum

golden, base of femora not black,

trochanters dark brown, species of

moderate size. Occurs in New

York. Leiobunum verrucosum

KK. Abdomen rather short and broad,

legs very long, small species.

L. Dorsum and trochanters light

brown, bases of femora not black.

Occurs in the Southern States.

Leiobunum bicolor

LL. Dorsum yellowish, trochanters and

bases of femora black. Occurs in

Alabama. Leiobunum speciosum

HI I. Trochanters pale, concolorous with the

coxae.

1. Body short and broad, femur of the last

pair of legs often black at base, small

species. Occurs in the Eastern States.

Leiobunum politum

II. Body tapering behind, femur of the

fourth legs not black at base, larger

species.

J . Extremely spinose beneath, an impressed

line on the last ventral segment, large

species. Occurs in the Southern

States. Leiobunum flavum

J J. Moderately spinose, rather granulate,

no impressed line, species of moderate

size. Occurs in the Eastern States.

Leiobunum ventricosum

Genus HADROBUNUS (Had-ro-bu'nus)

The body is large; the legs are moderately slender, the femur
of the first legs is much shorter than the body, in the female
shorter than the width of the body, there are several false articula-
tions in the metatarsus of the first legs; the eyes are of normal size,
the eye-tubercle is of moderate size and with a few denticles above;
there are no spines on the anterior margin of the cephalothorax;
the pedipalps are without spines, and with the last segment

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

longer than the penultimate, the palpal claw is dentate. Two
species have been described.

Hadrobunus grandis (H. gran'dis). — In this species the
dorsum is finely spinulate; the legs are longer than in the following
species, and in the female are not much marked with brown at
the tips of the segments. It occurs in the Eastern States.

Hadrobunus maculosus (H. mac-u-lo'sus). — This species
occurs in the Southern States and differs from the preceding in
that the dorsum is more smooth and is marked with many small,
round, pale spots; the legs are shorter and are more marked with
brown.

Genus MESOSOMA (Mes-o-so'ma)

This genus differs from Leiobunum in that the body is very
hard and granulate both above and below; the legs are very short;
and the fourth pair of legs are nearly as long as the second pair.

Mesosoma nigrum (M. ni'grum). — The body is ovate; it is
black above, light beneath, the legs are black except at the base;
the ocular tubercle is destitute of spines but is armed with obtuse
granules. Length of body about one fifth inch. This species
occurs in the Southern and Western States.

Family ISCHYROPSALIDiE (Isch-y-rop-sal'i-dse)

This family differs from the Phalangiida?, to which it is
allied, in the following characteristics: the last segment of the
pedipalps is shorter than the penultimate one and is clawless;
the coxa of the fourth leg is not fused with the adjacent sternite
of the abdomen; the endite of the second leg is directed vertically
downward; and there are no tibial spiracles.

Only one genus of this family has been found in the United
States.

Genus TARACUS (Tar'a-cus)

The members of this genus can be separated at a glance from
all other harvestmen occurring in our fauna by the great length
of the chelicerae, which are longer than the body and project
forward (Fig. 58). Three species have been found in the Far
West.

Taracus spinosus (T. spi-no'sus). — This species differs from
the other two in that the dorsum of the abdomen is spinose, and

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

the chelicerae are pale in colour. It measures about one twelfth
inch in length. The colour is pale yellowish with the claws of
the chelicerae reddish brown. It was found in California.

Taracus pallipes (T. pal'li-pes). — In this and in the following
species the dorsum of the abdomen is smooth and the chelicerae
are dark. In this species the chelicerae are smooth. The cephalo-
thorax is pale, with a broad, black,
median stripe, as wide as the base of
the chelicerae; the abdomen is dark gray
above with black spots; the venter is
pale, darker near the tip. The length of
the body is one fourth inch; the chelicerae
are one half longer. This species occurs
on the Pacific Coast; it was described
from the State of Washington. Fig. s8. taracus packardi

Taracus packardi (T. pac-kar'di). —
The dorsum of the abdomen is smooth and the chelicerae are
dark, as in the preceding species. But the chelicerae are rough
and armed with very distinct spines on the basal segment. The
length of the body is one fifth inch. This species has been found
in. Colorado and in New Mexico (Fig. 58).

Family NEMASTOMATID/E (Ne-mas-to-mat'i-dae)

In the Nemastomatidae the sternites of the abdomen are free,
overlapping, and without a median divisional sulcus; the first
and second abdominal sternites are narrowed anteriorly and coni-
cally produced between the coxae, and only overlapping the
posterior two pairs to a relatively small extent; and the eighth
or penultimate tergite is large and greatly expanded laterally.

Only two genera of this family have been found in the United
States; these can be separated as follows:

A. Fourth segment of the palpus much thickened. P. 77.

Phlegmacera
AA. Fourth segment of the palpus scarcely thickened. P. 78.

Nemastoma

Genus PHLEGMACERA (Phleg-mac'e-ra)

In this genus the fourth segment of the palpus is much
thickened. Three species h:.ve been described.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Phlegmacera bryantii (bry-an'ti-i). — -This species differs
from the two following in the presence of several false articulations
in the femora of the third and fourth pairs of legs. The eye
tubercle is very broad. This is an Alaskan species; it was found
on the snows of Mount St. Elias.

Phlegmacera occidentale (P. oc-ci-den-ta'le). — -There are no
false articulations in the femora, as in the preceding species. The
basal segment of the abdomen bears a row of spines, the median
pair of these is much the largest; the next four segments have
each a pair of humps crowned with stiff hairs. The colour of the
body is pale, with a large brown spot on the cephalothorax; the
eye-tubercle is black; and there is also a large brown spot on the
front part of the dorsum of the abdomen. Length of body one
tenth inch. Occurs in Washington State.

Phlegmacera cavicolens (P. ca-vic'o-lens). — This species
agrees with the preceding in lacking false articulations in the
femora, but differs from it in lacking also the pair of prominent
erect spines on the anterior part of the abdomen. It is found in
caves and in other dark situations. It is widely distributed in
the East.

Genus NEMASTOMA (Ne-mas'to-ma)

This genus differs from the preceding in that the fourth
segment of the palpus is scarcely thickened. Four species are
known.

Nemastoma inops (N. i'nops). - -This differs from the two
following species in that the fourth segment of the palpus is less
than twice as long as the fifth. It is a cave-inhabiting species
found in Kentucky.

Nemastoma modestum (N. mo-des'tum).— - The dorsum is
granulated and armed with tubercles. Near the union of the
cephalothorax and abdomen there are two diverging rows of four
curved spines. The species has been found in California and in
Washington State.

Nemastoma troglodytes (N. trog-lo-dy'tes).— - This is a cave-
inhabiting species found in Utah. It differs from the preceding
in that the dorsum is devoid of spines.

Nemastoma dasycnemon (N. das-y-cne'mon). — This is a
minute species, the body measuring less than one twenty-fifth
of an inch in length. The legs are armed with short, acute,

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

perpendicular spines and with long, slender hairs, which in their
basal half stand at right angles to the leg, and in their distal
half are bent forward and are somewhat matted. It has been
found in Missouri and in North Carolina.

Family TROGULIDiE (Tro-gu'li-dae)

The Trogulidas differs from the Nemastomidae, with which
it is closely allied, in that the sternites of the abdomen, except
the genital and anal, are fused, do not overlap, and are marked
by a median longitudinal sulcus; and in that the first and second
abdominal sternites are widely rounded anteriorly and overlap
considerably the proximal extremities of the two posterior pairs
of coxae; and also in having the eighth or penultimate tergite
small and narrow, and not expanded laterally. The legs are
shorter and stouter than in the preceding family; and the cara-
pace bears a frontal process which conceals the cheliceras and
pedipalps.

This family is represented in our fauna by only two genera,
both of which are restricted to the Pacific Slope. They are
separated as follows by Mr. Banks:

A. Eye-tubercle projecting in the form of a spoon, two spines
at each side on the anterior margin. P. 79.

Ortholasma

AA. Eye-tubercle branched, a single club at each side on the

anterior margin. P. 80. Dendrolasma

Genus ORTHOLASMA (Or-tho-las'ma)

The cephalothorax is armed with a pair of spines at each side
on the anterior margin. The eye-tubercle projects in front in
the form of an almost flat, gradually widening plate; the tip of
the eye-tubercle is rounded, with a more dense central rib and some
lateral ribs connected by a membrane. The eyes are but partly
visible from above.

Only two species of these harvestmenare known; both of these
are from the Pacific Coast, and were described by Mr. Banks.

Ortholasma pictipcs (O. pic'ti-pes). — The form of the body
of this remarkable harvestman is represented by Fig. 59; the legs
are long and slender, and are not represented in the figure in order

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

to save space. The forward projecting process of the eye-tubercle
has only four or five openings on each side; and the ribs of this
process project beyond its edge.

This species was discovered in California by Dr. J. C.
Bradley.

Ortholasma rugosa (O. ru-go'sa).— - This species differs from
the preceding in having six or more openings on each side of the

Fig. 59- ORTHOLASMA PICTIPES

forward projecting process of the eye-tubercle; and in that the
femora and tibue of the legs are not banded. The colour of mature
individuals is black, of young ones brownish. The length of the
body is about one seventh inch.

This species is common in southern California.

Genus DENDROLASMA (Den-dro-las'ma)

The cephalothorax is armed with a club at each side on the
anterior margin. The eye-tubercle projects forward in the form
of a central support, with lateral branches somewhat connected

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

at the tips, the whole forming an oval figure. The eyes are visible
from above.

Dcndrolasma mirabilis (D. mi-rab'i-lis). — The colour of
the body is brown or black with the venter paler; the projecting
part of the eye-tubercle and the club at each side are whitish.
The sides and the hind margin of the cephalothorax are armed
with a row of tubercles which are more or less connected,
and there is a square of similar tubercles just behind the eye-
tubercle. The dorsum of the abdomen has also many series of
tubercles. The length of the body is one eighth inch. This
species was discovered in Washington State and is the only known
one of the genus.

Order ACARINA (Ac-a-ri'na)
The Mites

In this order the abdomen is unsegmented and is not con-
stricted at the base, but is broadly joined to the cephalothorax,

v^Y^M2

Fig. 60. THE [TCH-MITE
a, from below b, from above

with little or no indication of a division

between these two regions. The result of

this is that the entire body often presents

a more or less sac-like appearance. (Fig. 60.)

In many members of the order, however,

the body is divided into two regions which

are commonly termed the cephalothorax and

the abdomen (Fig. 61). But these regions do not correspond

to those bearing the same names in the other orders of the

Fig. 61.

BDELLA PEREGRTNA

(after Banks)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Arachnida. The so-called abdomen of mites includes the true
abdomen and the last two thoracic segments; this is indicated
by the fact that it bears the third and fourth pairs of legs.

In many mites the body is marked by numerous transverse,
fine lines, which are so impressed as to appear like the divisions
between minute segments, but the number of these divisions
on the ventral aspect of the body may differ greatly from that of
the dorsal.

Normally there are six pairs of appendages, as with other
arachnids; these are the chelicerae, the pedipalps, and four pairs
of legs.

As a rule the chelicerae consist of two segments and are often
chelate. In many forms, however, the chelicerae are slender,

Fig. 62. SEVERAL TYPES OF PEDIPALPS
a, Bdella b, Cheylctus c, Arrenurus d, Trombidium (adapted from Banks)

needle-like, and fitted for piercing. This difference in form of
the chelicerae is not of great taxonomic value, as in several cases
the two types exist within the same family.

The pedipalps consist of not more than five segments; the\
may be prominent or greatly reduced in size. They vary greatly
in form and in function. In some mites, they are simple, filiform,
and have a tactile function; in others they are specialized fo;
predatory purposes, being armed with spines, hooks, or claws; and
in still others they are chelate, the chela being used for clinging
to some object. In some forms, more or less distinct endites are
present. In the harvest-mites, and in some other families, the
next to the last segment of the pedipalp is armed with one or two

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

claws, and the last segment is often clavate and appears like an
appendage of the preceding segment, in such cases it is termed the
thumb. Several types of pedipalps are represented in Fig. 62.

The head segments, those bearing the chelicerae and the
pedipalps, are often more or less distinct from the following
thoracic segment, and form what has been termed the beak,
rostrum, or capitulum (ca-pit'u-lum); this division, however, is
indistinct in some forms; and sometimes the beak is partly or
completely retracted into the following segments. When the
beak is thus retracted, the opening of the body from which the
mouth-parts project is known as the camerostoma (cam-e-ros'to-
ma). In Uropoda the base of the first pair of legs is also retracted
into the camerostoma (Fig. 63).

Sometimes the basal segments of the pedipalps are united
and form a Up, or labium; and above the chelicerse there is in many
forms a thin corneous plate, termed
the epistoma (e-pis'to-ma). The sides
of the epistoma may be united to the
labium and thus form what is known
as the oral tube, for it is through it
that the chelicerae are protruded.

In several families there is an
organ termed the tongue or hypostoma
(hy-pos'to-ma), which arises from the
inner base of the beak, and may be VvA- 6i-

..... . . , . .... UROPODA. VENTRAL ASPECT

divided or simple. In the ticks it is (after Banks)

large and roughened with sharp teeth.

Sometimes the hypostoma has a groove above, called the vomer.

As in other arachnids, the normal number of legs is four pairs;
but almost invariably the newly hatched young has only three
pairs, and in the family Eriophyidae even the adults have only
two pairs.

In the remarkable genus Ptcroptus, which is parasitic on
bats, the larval stage is passed within the body of the mother,
and the young mite when born has four pairs of legs.

That the possession of only three pairs of legs by larval
mites is an adaptive characteristic is shown by the fact that the
embryo of certain forms, as Gamasus and Ixodes,, has four pairs
of legs, one pair of which is aborted before the birth of the larva,
and is again developed when the larva transforms to a nymph.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

The legs consist of from five to seven segments. When only
five segments are present they are the coxa, trochanter, femur,
tibia, and tarsus; the tibia may be divided forming a patella, and
sometimes the femur is also divided. In some forms the terminal
segments of the legs are divided by more or less distinct false
articulations. The tarsus ends in one or two claws; and in many
cases an empodium is present; this may be either a cup-shaped
sucker or may be claw-like.

One or more pairs of lateral eyes are usually present; as a
rule these are sessile, but sometimes they are elevated on pedicels.
Rarely the eyes are situated near the middle line of the body.

There is great difference in the position of the openings
of the abdomen. Normally the genital aperture is on the ventral
surface of the abdomen near the base; but in some forms, as the
ticks, the genital segment is pushed forward between the legs so
far that it is close to the mouth; and in other forms the genital
opening is at the extreme tip of the body, and the anus is upon
the dorsal aspect of the abdomen.

Mites breathe either by tubular tracheae or by the general
surface of the body. In those forms that possess tracheae there
are great differences as to the position of the spiracles; these
variations have been used by some writers in limiting the principal
divisions of the order.

In the course of their postembryonic development, mites
undergo a metamorphosis. Most species are oviparous, some
are ovoviparous and a few are viviparous. From the egg there
appears a form which normally has only three pairs of legs; this
is known as the larva. The use of the term larva in this con-
nection is appropriate; for this form resembles the larva of an
insect with a complete metamorphoses in being adaptive, as is
shown by the temporary reduction of the number of legs. The
larva feeds for a time and then, after a resting stage, the skin
is shed and the eight-legged nymph appears. Usually at least,
the added pair of legs is the fourth. There may be one or more
nymphal moults, and the successive instars may differ in appear-
ance, but all lack a completely developed genital orifice. At the
close of the nymphal life there is a resting stage during which
the nymph transforms to the adult, there being a histolysis and a
rebuilding of some of the internal organs as in the pupae of insects.

Variations from this usual course of transformation occur.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Thus in the genus Pteroptus the larval stadium is passed within
the body of the mother, and in the genus Pediculoides the young
are retained within the body of the mother till they reach the
adult stage. And in many there has been developed a peculiar
nymphal instar, known as the bypopus (hyp'o-pus), the function
of which is the distribution of the species. The hypopus differs
greatly in structure from the preceding and the succeeding
nymphal instars, both of which have normal legs and mouth-
parts. In the hypopus there is no mouth opening and no mouth-
parts; and the legs are short and not fitted for walking. On the
ventral surface near the tip of the abdomen there is an area pro-
vided with several sucking disks by means of which the hypopus
attaches itself to an insect or other animal and is transported to
some other locality, where it may find a suitable breeding place.
When this is reached the hypopus transforms into a normal nymph.

The order Acarina is one of great biologic interest and of
equally great economic importance; but the minute size of most
of the species makes its study somewhat difficult, and compara-
tively few students are attracted to it. In fact few people realize
the immense number of individuals and of species of mites that
are about us. In a recent catalogue. Banks ('07) enumerates
450 species, representing [33 genera, that are found within the
United States. And it is probable that not more than one
third of our species have been described.

It is impractical to treat the Acarina in this work as fullv
as are treated the other orders of Arachnida, without greatly
exceeding the desirable limits of space. The student who wishes
to study this group seriously must make use of more special works.
Fortunately a most excellent treatise on the mites of this country
has been published by Banks ('04) who has given much attention
to the order and who has described many of our known species.
In the preparation of the account given here, I have freely used
this work by Banks. Among other important American papers
is a Review of the Genera of the Water-mites, by Wolcotl ('05);
a Revision of the Ixodoidea, or Ticks of the United Slates, by Banks
('08), papers on the Oribatoidea by II. E. F.wing, and studies on
the gall-mites are being published by Parrott, Hodgkiss, and
Schoene at the Geneva, N. Y., Experiment Station. I here are
many European works on this order; the most important is
Canestrini's Prospctto dell' Acarofauna Italiana, published at

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Padua, in parts, which appeared in the years 1885 to 1899. An
older standard work is that of Megnin, Les Parasites et les Maladies
Parasitaires, Paris, 1880.

Twenty-two of the families of mites are known to be rep-
resented in our fauna.* These twenty-two families are grouped
into eight superfamilies. We have space here for only a brief
discussion of the superfamilies. The eight superfamilies are
separated by Banks as follows:

A. Abdomen annulate, prolonged behind; very minute forms;
many with but four legs. P. 93. Demodicoidea

AA. Abdomen not annulate nor prolonged behind; all with
eight legs in the adult state.
B. With a distinct spiracle upon a stigmal plate on each side
of the body, usually below, above the third or fourth
coxae or a little behind; palpi free; skin often cori-
aceous or leathery; tarsi often with a sucker.
C. Hypostome large, furnished below with many recurved
teeth; venter with furrows; skin leathery; large
forms, usually parasitic. P. 89. Ixodoidea

CC. Hypostome small, without teeth; venter without fur-
rows; body often with coriaceous shields, posterior
margin never crenulate; no eyes. P. 90

Gamasoidea

BB. No such distinct spiracle in a stigmal plate on this part

of the body.

C. Body usually coriaceous, with few hairs ; with a specialized

seta arising from a pore near each posterior corner of

the cephalothorax; no eyes; mouth-parts and palpi

very small; ventral openings of the abdomen large;

never parasitic; tarsi never with a sucker. P. 91.

Oribatoidea
CC. Body softer, without such specialized seta.

D. Living in water. P. 88. Hydrachnoidea

DD. Not living in water.

E. Palpi small, three-jointed, adhering for some
distance to the lip; ventral suckers at genital
opening or near anal opening usually present;
no eyes; tarsi often end in suckers; beneath the

* In Banks' Treatise twenty-five families are described; but in his later catalogue three of these
families are united with other families.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

skin on the venter are seen rod-like epimera that
support the legs; body often entire; adult fre-
quently parasitic. P. 92 Sarcoptoidea
EE. Palpi usually of four or five joints, free; rarely
with ventral suckers near genital or anal open-
ings; eyes often present; tarsi never end in
suckers; body usually divided into cephalothorax
and abdomen; rod-like epimera rarely visible;
adults rarely parasitic.
F. Last segment of palpi never forms a "thumb"
to the preceding joint; pal-pi simple, or rarely
formed to hold prey; body with but few
hairs. P. 87. Eupodoidea
FF. Last segment of palpi forms a "thumb" to the
preceding, which ends in a claw (a few excep-
tions); body often with many hairs. P 87.

Trombidoidea

Superfamily EUPODOIDEA (Eu-po-doi'de-a)

The Eupodoidea includes two families, the Eupodidae and
the Bdellidas, each of which contains only a small number of
known American species. These are predaceous mites which
feed on small insects or insect eggs. They live as a rule in moist
places, in moss, among fallen leaves, on rotten bark, and in other
similar situations; but some are found on the leaves of trees.
Many of the species are red or marked with this colour. But our
most conspicuous red mites do not belong here; these are the
harvest-mites described later.

Superfamily TROMBIDOIDEA (Trom-bi-doi'da-e)
The Red-spiders and the Harvest-mites

The Trombidoidea includes six families, two of which are of
general interest. These are the Tetranychidas or "red-spiders"
and the Trombidiidae or harvest-mites.

The Tetranychidae ( 1 et-ra-nych'i-da?) are of considerable
economic importance on account of their injuries to cultivated
plants. They are well-known under the common name "red-
spider." In the colder portions of the country they are common

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

pests in greenhouses and in the warmer and drier regions they
often infest fruit trees in the open air to a serious extent. The
common species of the greenhouse is Teiranychus telarius (T.
te-la'ri-us). To this family belongs also the clover mite, Bryobia
pratensis (Bry-o'bi-a pra-ten'sis), which infests clover and other
annual plants as well as fruit trees.

The species that infest greenhouses can be kept in check by
keeping the plants moist, spraying them every day. But the
best remedy is flowers of sulphur applied either as a dry powder
or as a spray. A spray of kerosene emulsion is also effective,
killing the eggs as well as the mites.

The family Trombidiidae (Trom-bi-di'-i-dae) includes the well-
known harvest-mites. These are always red in colour, but some
are much darker than others. Most of the species are of moderate
or large size. A common species in the Eastern States, Trom-
bidium sericeum (Trom-bid'i-um se-ric'e-um — ) is found in moist
woodlands and often attracts attention by its bright red colour
and silky vestiture.

In the harvest-mites the body is divided into two regions,
the cephalothorax and abdomen; but the so-called abdomen bears
the third and fourth pairs of legs. The body and legs are covered
either with bristles or with feathered hairs. There are two pairs
of lateral eyes; in many cases these are borne on pedicels.

The six-legged larvae of some species are the "red-bugs" of
the Southern States that attach themselves to man, and cause
serious annoyance. They burrow beneath the skin and produce
inflamed spots. They can be killed by the use of a sulphur oint-
ment. The mature mite is not parasitic, but wanders about
feeding on small insects.

Superfamily HYDRACHNOIDEA (Hy-drach-noi'de-a)

The IVater-rnites

The Hydrachnoidea includes two families, the Hydrachnidas
and the Halacaridae. The Halacaridae (Hal-a-car'i-dae) is a small
family of marine mites. The species that occur along the coasts
of North America have not been studied, only a single species
having been described; but of the Hydrachnidae about one hundred
North American species are known. These represent twenty-five
genera.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

In the Hydrachnidae (Hy-drach'ni-dae) the body is short, usu-
ally high, and sometimes nearly spherical. There is no division
between the cephalothorax and abdomen. They have one or two
pairs of eyes, which in some cases are situated near the median line.

In most species the adult mite lives free in the water, but
some are parasitic in the gills of mollusks. Nearly all of the
species live in fresh water; but some are found in brackish water,
and a few live in the littoral zone of the sea. The free species
feed on small Crustacea, infusoria, and minute insect larvae.

The larval mites are often found attached to aquatic insects;
they appear like club-shaped eggs attached by the small end.

Superfamily IXODOIDEA
(Ix-o-doi'de-a)

The Ticks

Of all mites, the ticks are the
ones that most often attract the
attention of those who are not
making a study of this order. This
is due to the fact that they attach
themselves to man and to domestic
animals and are exceedingly an-
noying pests. This is especially
true in the warmer portions of the
country. Among the ticks are also
the most important members of
the order from an economic stand-
point as certain species transmit
serious diseases.

Ticks are parasitic on mam-
mals, birds, and reptiles. In most
cases they do not seriously injure
their host, but in others they cause
serious inflammation and swelling
of the infested part. Among those
that transmit diseases the Southern
cattle tick is the most important one that occurs in this country.

It is the Southern cattle-tick, Boophilus annulatus (Bo-
oph'i-lus an-nu-la'tus) (Fig. 64) that transmits the tick-fever,

Fig. 64. THE CATTLE TICK
a, female b, male

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

or Texas-fever as it was formerly called, from one animal to
another. This disease has caused the death of thousands of cattle
in this country; and makes it extremely difficult to introduce
cattle from the North into the South. This tick is found only
in the South and the Federal Government has established a
quarantine line across which cattle are not allowed to be shipped
or driven without being freed from the ticks.

The Department of Agriculture at Washington and several
of the Southern Experiment Stations have issued publications
giving the life history of this tick in great detail and suggestions
as to methods of preventing the spread of the disease; these can
be obtained on request by any one interested in the subject. In
some of these publications this tick is designated as Margaro-
pus annulatus (Mar-gar'o-pus an-nu-la'tus).

The cause of the disease is a protozoan parasite Babesia
bovis (Ba-be'si-a bo'vis), which lives in the blood of cattle, destroy-
ing the red blood corpuscles and which is transferred from one
animal to another by the tick. Even the young of ticks that
have infested diseased cattle may transmit the disease.

Superfamily GAMASOIDEA (Gam-a-soi'de-a)

The Gamasid Mites

The Gamasid mites are often observed attached to beetles
and other terrestrial insects upon which they spend a part of
their life. It was formerly believed that these mites were para-
sites of the insects, but it has been found that they are nymphs
which secure transportation in this way, a method of distribution
of the species.

A few species are parasitic on birds, bats, and small mammals;
some are found in ant-nests; a great many occur among fallen
leaves, and some live in decaying substances, either animal or
vegetable. Most species prey on small insects or on other mites.
Among those found on insects, some are attached by an anal
pedicel formed of excretions.

Among the species that are parasitic on birds there is one
Dermanyssus gallince (Der-ma-nys'sus gal-li'nae), which is a
serious pest of poultry. The mites of this species hide in cracks
and crevices by day, but at night crowd upon the fowls and suck

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

their blood. This pest can be destroyed by spraying the poultry
houses with kerosene.

All of our species are now included in the family Gamasidae
of which nearly fifty species have been described representing
eighteen genera.

Superfamily ORIBATOIDEA (Or-i-ba-toi'de-a)

The Oribatid Mites

The oribatid mites are now classed as a single family, the
Oribatidae; this is a large one, nearly one hundred and fifty species
being known from North America alone. Nearly all of these were
described by either Mr. Banks or Mr. Ewing; the number of
species will doubtless be greatly increased when our fauna is more
thoroughly explored.

In most cases these mites are distinguished by the presence
of a pair of large club-shaped setae arising from near the pos-
terior corners of the cephalothorax
(Fig. 65). These setae are known
as the pseudo-stigmatic organs, from
the fact that the trichopores from
which they arise were formerly
believed to be spiracles.

With most of the Oribatidae
thecuticula is coriaceous, giving the

. . . Fig. 65. AX ORIBATID MITE

mites some resemblance in appear- {Hopiodema sphmda) tafter Banks)
ance to small beetles. For this

reason they are sometimes termed "beetle mites"; but as this
name is often applied to those gamasid mites that are found on
beetles it is not distinctive.

The resemblance of the oribatid mites to beetles is increased
by the fact that the suture separating the cephalothorax and
abdomen is usually quite distinct. Many of the common forms
are shining black in colour.

These mites are of little or no economic importance; some of
them are supposed to injure grass to a slight extent; but most
of them are found among moss, on the bark of trees, and on the
ground under wood, bark, stones, and fallen leaves. .Most of
the species feed on vegetable matter, a few are found on decaying
animal matter, and some bore into decaying wood.

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

Superfamily SARCOPTOIDEA (Sar-cop-toi'de-a)

The Itch-mites and Others

The Sarcoptoidea include seven families of mites; but
several of these families are small and include only forms that
are not likely to attract the attention of the ordinary observer.
Some of these forms, however, are of great scientific interest, as
for example Pediculoides, which lives parasitically upon insects,
and which gives birth to sexually mature young. 1 1 is in one of the
families of this group, the Tyroglyphidae, that those mites that
have the remarkable migratory stage, the hypopus, described on
an earlier page, are found. It is to this family also that belong
certain species which attack food products as cheese, sugar, flour
and dried meats; these are often of considerable economic impor-
tance. The disease
iV J/ 1 /a known as " grocers'

itch" is caused by
these mites which
sometimes spread
from infested ma-
terials to the hands
of those handling
them.

To the family
Sarcoptidae belong
the itch-mites,
which are so-called
because they often burrow within the skin of man, causing the
disease known as the itch. The diseases of domestic animals
known as scabies or mange are also due to members of this
family.

The species attacking man is Sarcoptes scahei (Sar-cop'tes
sca'be-i) (Fig. 66). It is apt to infest the soft skin between
the fingers and may spread to other parts of the body. The
mites make burrows within the skin and the eggs are deposited
within the burrows. The spread of the disease is due to the
spreading of the mites from one person to another; this is often
brought about by hand-shaking. The remedy most often used
is a sulphur ointment, by means of which the mites can be killed.
The disease known as sheep-scab is caused by the mite

Fig. 66. SCARCOPTES SCABEI

Spiders and Their Near Relative:

Sarcoptes ovis. This disease is combatted by dipping the sheep
in some poisonous solution. A "sheep-dip" approved by the
Federal Government is made of extract of tobacco or nicotine
solution and flowers of sulphur. It contains five hundredths of
one per cent, of nicotine and two per cent, flowers of sulphur;
or, for the first dipping in lieu of the sulphur, more nicotine is
used so that the solution contains not less than seven hundredths
of one per cent, of nicotine. A second dipping of the infested
animal should be made six or eight days after the first, in order to
kill the mites that have hatched in the interval.

Superfamily DEMODICOIDEA (De-mod-i-coi'-de-a)

The Gall-mites and Others

In this superfamily are grouped certain very minute mites

that agree in having the abdomen annulate and prolonged behind;

it includes two families.
The more important

of these two families is the

Eriophyidaeor gall-mites.

The members of this

family have only four legs

and these are five-jointed.

The mites live on plants

and often within galls.

Some species produce galls which resemble those made by

plant liceoraphids in having an open mouth. These galls may
g be trumpet-shaped or they

may be but slightly elevated
resembling a blister.

A common disease of the
pear and apple, known as the
pear-leaf blister, is produced
by Eriophyes pyri (Er-i-o-
phv'es py'ri) (Fig. 67). The
blisters characteristic of the
disease are swellings of the

leaf, within which there is a cavity affording a residence for the

mites. Figure 68 represents a section of a leaf through one

of these galls. Here the leaf is seen to be greatly thickened at the

diseased part. On the lower side there is an opening through

Fig. 67. ERIOPHYES PYRI

Fig. 68.
DIAGRAM OF GALL OF ERIOPHYES'PYRI

g, gall n,n. normal structure of leaf
0, opening of gall «, eggs (after Soraur)

Spiders and Their Near Relatives

which the mite that started the gall entered, and from which young
mites developed in the gall can escape, in order to start new
galls. In addition to the swelling of both surfaces of the leaf
its internal structure is seen to be modified. In some parts there
is a great multiplication of the cells, and in others a large part

Fig. 69. GALL OF ERIOPHYES PYRI
g, gall n,n, uninjured part of leaf 0, opening of gall

of the cells have been destroyed. Two eggs of mites are rep-
resented in this gall. As the season advances, and the galls
become dry and brownish or black, the thicken-
ing of the leaf becomes less marked. In fact,
in some cases there is a shrinkage of the parts
affected. Figure 69 represents a section through
a leaf collected and studied in October.

The most conspicuous of the abnormal
growths on leaves caused by mites are bright
coloured patches, often mistaken for fungoid
growths; these occur on the leaves of various
trees, and are due to an abnormal development
of the epidermal plant cells or a deformation of
the plant hairs, caused by the mites. This type
of abnormal growth is termed an erineum
(e-rin'e-um).

The members of the family Demodecidae
resemble the gall-mites in having the body
annulate and prolonged behind; but differ in
having eight legs which are three-jointed. It
includes a single genus, Demodex, the species of
which are found in the sebaceous glands and
hair-follicles of various mammals. The species
that infests man is Demodex folliculorum
(Dem'o-dex fol-lic-u-lo'rum) (Fig. 70). It was formerly sup-
posed to be the cause of "blackheads" or comedones (com-e-
do'nes) on the face; but it has been found that the mites occur
in healthy as well as diseased follicles.

Fig. 70. DEMODEX
FOLLICULORUM

(after Megnin)

CHAPTER II: THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF

SPIDERS

Spiders resemble the allied animals described in the preceding
pages in having the segments of the body grouped in two regions,
the cephalothorax (ceph-a-lo-tho'rax) and the abdomen (Fig. 71),
in having four pairs of legs fitted for walking, and in having the
antenna? modified into organs of prehension, the chelicera:.

The spiders differ from other Arachnida in having the ab-
domen unsegmented and joined to the cephalothorax by a narrow
stalk. There is a single small family of spiders, Liphistiidtv, in
which the abdomen is segmented; but representatives of this
family have been found only in the East Indies. In the genus
Tetrablemma, found in Ceylon, the abdomen bears a series of
plates, which are evidently vestiges of a segmented condition.
But in all American spiders the abdomen is sac-like.

THE CEPHALOTHORAX

In spiders the cephalothorax, like the abdomen, is unseg-
mented; although frequently the head and the thorax are slightly
separated by a furrow, the cervical groove (Fig. 72). In such cases,
most writers refer to the head as the cephalic part, or the pars
cephalica, and to the thorax as the thoracic part, or the pars
thoracica; but the simple terms head and thorax are sufficient
for all purposes, and will be used in this book when it is necessary
to refer to the principal divisions of the cephalothorax. The
hard integument forming the dorsal wall of the cephalothorax
is termed the carapace (car'a-pace).

THE HEAD

The head is that portion of the cephalothorax which bears
the eyes and the so-called mouth-parts, the appendages that are
used for seizing and chewing their prey. It is either slightly
or not at all separated from the thorax; but it is almost always

The External Anatomy of Spiders

easily distinguished. It is usually wedge-shaped behind; the
lateral portions of the thorax extending a considerable distance
on each side of it (Fig. 72).

The Eyes.— The eyes are all simple, resembling in appear-
ance the ocelli or simple eyes of insects; in none of them is the

Fig. 71. A SPIDER. SHOWING THE DIVISION OF THE BODY
INTO CEPHALOTHORAX AND ABDOMEN

outer layer divided into facets as in the compound eyes of insecb.
They are usually situated near the front end of the head; in some
cases they are grouped upon a tubercle (Fig. 72); in others, they
are separated so as to occupy nearly the whole width of the
head (Fig. 73).* The normal number of the eyes is eight; but
two, four or six of them may be wanting and certain cave spiders
are blind. The number and the arrangement of the eyes furnish
characters which are much used in classification, as is shown in
later portions of this book.

In works on the classification of spiders, two types of eyes
are distinguished, the nocturnal eyes and the diurnal eyes. The
so-called nocturnal eyes are found in spiders that live in the
dark or that frequent shady places; they are distinguished by
being pearly white in colour. The so-called diurnal eyes lack
the pearly lustre and are variously coloured. This distinction

* See page ioon the primitive position of the eyes.

The External Anatomy of Spiders

is not a good one; it is discussed at length in the next chapter,
where the structure of nocturnal eyes is explained.

The anterior median eyes differ from the other six eyes in a
remarkable manner as regards their intimate structure and mode
of development. These eyes have been termed the postbacillar
(post-bac'il-lar) eyes; and the other six eyes, the prebacillar eyes.
The differences in structure between these two types of eyes are
discussed in the next chapter.

In many spiders the eyes are arranged in two transverse
rows each containing four eyes (Fig. 73); and this is regarded as
the normal arrangement. Special names are applied to the
different eyes, the names being suggested by their relative po-
sitions when thus arranged. The names are anterior median,
applied to the two intermediate eyes of the first row; posterior
median, the two intermediate eyes of the second row; anterior

Qh-

Fig. 72.

CARAPACE 01 \ I \K \\ TULA
eg, cervical
r], radial furrows

FiR. 73. MODELOFTHE CARAPACE
O] \ SPID1 R \ :! V. i I) FROM \B0\ E.
THE W rERIOR Row OF EYES AP-
PEARS TO BE PRO( I R\ l D

lateral, one at each end of the first row: and posterior lateral, one
at each end of the second row. Some writers refer to the
lateral eyes as the side eyes.

The rows of eyes are frequently curved. When the lateral
eyes of a row are farther forward than the median eyes the row

<)7

The External Anatomy of Spiders

<*>*— O^

Fig. 74-
THE MODEL REPRESENTED
IN FIG. 73 VIEWED FROM IN

FRONT; THE ANTERIOR
ROW OF EYES IS RECURVED

is said to be procurved; when the lateral are farther back than the
median eyes the row is recurved. In determining whether a row
of eyes is procurved or recurved, a line passing through the centre
of the eyes is considered, and not one tangent to either anterior

or posterior border of them, and in case
of the anterior row they should be viewed
from in front. In this case if the an-
terior lateral eyes are higher than the
anterior median — i. e., farther from
the edge of the clypeus — the row is
recurved, although when seen from
above the lateral eyes may be farther
forward than the median eyes and con-
sequently the row is apparently pro-
curved. This is illustrated by the
accompanying two views of a model
(Fig. 73 and Fig. 74).

Sometimes the curvature is very
great, and the posterior median eyes are
widely separated; then the eyes are said
to be arranged in three rows (Fig. 75);
and in some cases the eyes are in four
rows, each pair of median
eyes and each pair of lateral
eyes constituting a row
(Fig. 76).

The Areas of the
Head. — Special names are
applied to different areas of
the head; but the areas thus designated are not
limited by sutures and consequently the names
applied to them do not have the definite morpho-
logical significance that similar names have in de-
scriptions of insects. The areas most commonly
recognized are the following:

The eye-space. — That part of the head which

is between the rows of eyes is termed the eye-space.

The median ocular area. — The space limited by

the four median eyes and including that occupied

by these eyes is termed the median ocular area.

Fig. 75.
EYES IN THREE ROWS,
LYCOSA CAROLINENSIS

Fig. 76.
EYES IN FOUR
ROWS, LYSSO-

MANES

C)8

The External Anatomy of Spiders

It is also termed by some writers the ocular quadrangle or the
ocular quad. In descriptions of the jumping spiders (Attidae),
the term ocular quadrangle refers to the space occupied by all
of the eyes; and in this book this term is used only in this sense.
In the Lycosidae the four posterior eyes outline a trapeziform
area, which is described as the quadrangle of the posterior eyes.
The ocular tubercle. — In many spiders the eyes are situated
on an elevated portion of the head; this portion is termed the
ocular tubercle.

The clypeus (clyp'e-us). — The space between the eyes and
the first pair of appendages, the chelicerae, is termed the clypeus.

Frequently, in

the tables, reference

is made to the width

of the clypeus.

This is the distance

from the front edge

of the clypeus to

the eyes nearest

that edge.

The face. —

That part of the

head which can be

seen when the

spider is observed
from directly in front is termed the face (Fig. 77). This term
is used in descriptions of certain spiders belonging to the second
suborder. It includes the clypeus and a part or the whole of
the eye-space.

The front. — The anterior portion of that part of the head
lying immediately back of the clypeus is termed the front; the
front includes the eye-space, but has no definite limit behind.
The Chelicerae (che-lic'e-rae). — The first pair of append-
ages of the head are the cbelicercc. They are situated in front
of and above the mouth, from which they are separated by the
rostrum, and consist each of two segments, a large basal one,
and a terminal, claw-like one (Fig. 78). These are the appendages
with which the spider seizes and kills its prey. Near the tip of the
claw there is the opening of a poison gland (Fig. 79).

The chelicerae are modified antennae; the)' are homologous

Fir. 7.

FACE AND CHELICER/E

OF THERIDION

Fig. 78.

FACE AND CHELICER.E

OF ARANEA

The External Anatomy of Spiders

with the second antennae of Crustacea, but not with the antennae
of insects.*

It has been supposed by many writers that the chelicerae
correspond to the mandibles of insects, and they have, therefore,
been called mandibles, a term that cannot properly be applied to
them. The term fakes, proposed by Blackwall in 1852, is also
used by many writers, but there is no good reason for discarding
the much older term chelicerae.

The lateral condyle of the chelicera. — In many spiders there
is at the base of each chelicera, on the lateral face, a smooth
prominence, an articulating condyle (Fig. 80, / c); this may be
termed the lateral condyle of the chelicera. This condyle is wanting
in many families; and its presence or absence is a useful character
in classification. It is sometimes called the basal spot of the
chelicera.

When the condyle is present, the margin of the clypeus is
usually marked with a dark spot at the point of articulation
with the condyle.

The furrow of the chelicera. — Usually there is a furrow in the
basal segment of the chelicera for the reception of the claw when
it is closed (Fig. 81); and often there is on one or both sides of this
furrow a row of teeth (Fig. 83).

In the tarantulas, where the claw moves vertically, the
gins of this furrow may be designated as the inner and the outer
respectively; in the true spiders, as the upper and the lower.

The scopula (scop'u-la). — Frequently there is on the upper
side of the furrow of the chelicera, a brush of hairs (Fig. 82, 5);
this is the scopula of the chelicera. Scopulae are found also on
other appendages.

The rake of the chelicera. — In certain tarantulas that burrow
in the ground the extremity of the basal segment of the chelicera
is armed with several rows of strong teeth, which are used by the
spider in excavating its burrow; these constitute the rake of the
chelicera (Fig. 83).

The claw of the chelicera. — The claw of the chelicera is very
hard, curved, and pointed. On its concave face, there are usually

• In the Crustacea (lobsters, crabs, and allies) there are two pairs of antenna?, the first antenna
or antennules and the second antenna, commonly called the antennae. In spiders the first antenna:
are lost, appearing only in the embryo; and the second antenna; are modified into prehensible organs,
the chelice.ae. In insects the first antennae are retained and function as feelers, while the second
antennae are almost invariably lost: they are retained, however, in a vestigial condition in some
Thysanura.

IOO

Fig. 79- TIP OF CLAW OF
CHELICERiE

Fig. 83. CHELICERA OF \

TARANTULA SHOWING THE

RAKE OF THE CHELICERA

Fig. 80. HEAD AND
CHELICEK 1; OF A SPIDER

lc, lateral condyle

Fig. 81. CLAW AND PART

OE THE BASAL SEGMENT OF A

CHELK ERA

a, arlii ul.ir 1 I rite k, toothed keel

o, opening of the poi on gland

Fig. 84.
A CHELATE
CHELICERA,

PIIOLCUS

Fig. 8a. CHELIC1

AGELENA X.EVIA w 1 1

s, scopula

k\ OF

11 SCOPULA

Fip. 8s. ROSTRUM Wl>

ENDITES OJ I 111 PI DD7ALPS OF

ARGIOPE, DORSAL \ ll ■ W

r, rostrum

IOI

The External Anatomy of Spiders

two delicate keels, of which the lower is usually finely and regu-
larly toothed (Fig. 81, k). The claw is traversed by the duct
of the poison gland, which opens near the tip of the convex side
(Fig. 81, o). The position of this opening is such that it is not
closed by the pressure of the claw against the victim, and it
allows the venom to flow into the wound made by the claw.

The claw of the chelicera is freely movable, but only in one
plane. In the tarantulas, the claws of the two chelicerae move
parallel to each other in vertical planes; while in the true spiders
they move obliquely inward and backward toward each other.

The articular sclerite. — At the base of the claw and on the
side toward the furrow, there is a small sclerite (Fig. 81, a);
this is the articular sclerite of the chelicera. This sclerite may be
a vestige of an intermediate segment of the chelicera (See Bernard,
'96, p. 322).

Chelate chelicerce. — In most cases the chelicera of spiders
are of the uncate type (See p. 12); but in a few spiders the terminal
portion of the inner margin of the basal segment is prolonged
so as to oppose the tip of the claw and thus form a chela (Fig. 84).

The Rostrum. — The rostrum or upper lip is a single, median,
appendage-like part of the head, which resembles in form and
position the labrum of an insect; and it is quite probable that
the two are homologous. The rostrum is situated below or behind
the chelicerae and between the second pair of appendages, the
pedipalps.

By removing the chelicerae, the rostrum can be seen lying
between and upon the endites of the pedipalps (Fig. 85, r). On
the dorsal surface of the rostrum there is a longitudinal, median
keel, which is clothed with a band of hairs.

The Epipharynx. — On the ventral surface of the rostrum
there is a plate which may be termed by analogy the epipharynx.
This plate is strongly chitinized, and is marked by many trans-
verse striae, which lead to a central longitudinal slit, opening
into a longitudinal tube within the rostrum (Fig. 86,.

As the tube in the rostrum extends back to the beginning of
the oesophagus, the function of these striae in the epipharynx
is, evidently, to collect the fluid pressed from the spider's victim
and to conduct this fluid to the tube, from which it can flow to
the oesophagus.

The Labium (la'bi-um).— The ventral wall of the head is

102

Fig. 86.
THE EPIPHARYNX

OF ARGIOPE
a, tip b, basal portion

Fig. 88. PEDIPALP OF A TARANTULA

EURYPELMA, VENTRAL SURFACE

c, coxa /, femur p, patella /, tibia ta, tarsus

tr, trochanter

Fig. 87. MOUTH-PARTS

^ND STERNUM OF

AMAUROBIUS

c, cheliccra /, labium

P, pedipalp s, sternum

Fig. 89. PEDIPALP OF A TRUE SPIDER,
TRACHELAS
c, coxa en. endite /. femur p. patella sr. SCOpula
se. serrula /. tibia td, tarsus Ir, Uochantei

!03

The External Anatomy of Spiders

formed of a single sclerite, which is usually more or less movable,
and which on account of its position has been termed the lower
lip or labium. Like the rostrum, the labium is situated between
the second pair of appendages, the pedipalps (Fig. 87), the ros-
trum occupying a more dorsal position, and the labium, a more
ventral one.

The labium of a spider is not homologous with the labium
of an insect, which is formed of a pair of united appendages.

The Mouth. — The mouth cavity is situated between the
base of the pedipalps, which form the sides of this cavity. The
roof of the mouth is formed by the epipharynx; and the floor
by a sclerite, the tip of which lies upon the labium.

The mouth is fitted for the reception of only liquid food.
The spider cuts and presses its victim; and when it is sucked dry,
the hard parts are thrown away.

The Pedipalps (ped'i-palps). — The second of the two pairs
of appendages of the head are the pedipalps. They are situated
one on each side of the mouth; and are more or less leg-like in
form, especially in females. By some writers these appendages
are termed the maxilla?; but as they are not homologous with
the maxillae of insects, this is an undesirable use of the term.

Each pedipalp consists of a series of six segments which are
named, beginning with the one next to the body: coxa, trochanter,
femur, patella, tibia, and tarsus (Fig. 88). These terms are the
same as those applied to the corresponding segments of the leg.
The pedipalps differ from the legs in that the tarsus consists of
a single segment, there being no metatarsus; and there is never
more than one tarsal claw, which is wanting in all males and in
the females in many genera.

A special set of terms for the segments of the pedipalps has
been much used and is included here for reference. According
to this system the basal part is termed the maxilla and the fol-
lowing segments, beginning with the trochanter, are designated
as the axillary, humeral, cubital, radial and digital.

The endites. — In the tarantulas, except Atypus, the coxa
of the pedipalps closely resembles the coxa of a leg (Fig. 88);
but in the true spiders the coxa bears a plate, which is the crushing
part of the organ, this plate is the endite (Fig. 89, en). On
the dorsal surface of the organ there is a suture separating the
endite from the basal part of the coxa. This suture is present

104

The External Anatomy of Spiders

even in the tarantulas where the endite is but little developed
(Fig. 90). The endite is also known as the maxillary plale; but
this is an undesirable
term, as the pedipalps
are not homologous
with maxillae.

The scopula (scop'u-
la). — The internal
border of the endite
in many cases bears a
brush of hairs, this is
the scopula of the
pedipalp (Fig. 89, sc).

The serrula (ser'ru-
la). — In addition
to the scopula the
endite usually bears
near its distal margin
a keel which is finely
toothed, this is the
serrula (Fig. 89, se;
and Fig. 91). The
serrula doubtless plays an important part in lacerating the prey
so as to set free the juices upon which the spiders feed.

Fig. go.

PEDIPALP OF TARANTULA, EURYPELMA;
DORSAL SURFACE

Fig. 91. THE SERR1 LA

OF I Hi: END] II. OF

TRACHELAS

Fig. 02. PART Ol LEPHTHY-

Pll VNTES NEB1 L0S1 5, SHOW l\<;

Till I II. I ()X THE (III IK ERA

The palpus— -The coxa and the endite taken together are
regarded as the trunk of the pedipalp and the remaining seg-
ments as an appendage, which is termed the palpus.

I(>:

The External Anatomy of Spiders

In females the tarsus of the palpus resembles the tarsus of
a leg except that it consists of a single segment and bears only
a single claw or none. But in the males the tarsus of the palpus
is more or less enlarged and is very complicated in structure.
As the details of this structure vary greatly in different groups
of spiders much use is made of them in classification; for this
reason a special discussion of this part is given later. The char-
acteristic features of the palpi of males are not fully developed
until the spider reaches maturity; in young males the palpus
appears merely as a simple club-like organ.

The Stridulating Organs of the Mouth-parts. — In
the sheet-web weavers (Linyphiidos), the external face of the
chelicerae is furnished with a file-like series of ridges (Fig. 92)
against which the inner face of the femur of the pedipalps is
rubbed to produce a sound. And in several genera of tarantulas
also the mouth-parts are furnished with stridulating organs.

THE PALPI OF MALE SPIDERS

INTRODUCTION

The remarkable modification of the palpi of the males of spiders into organs
for the transference of the seminal fluid to the female at the time of pairing of
the sexes attracted the attention of naturalists at a very early date; and the great
variety of forms presented by these organs has led systematists to make much use
of them in taxonomic work. In practically all of the more important works on the
classification of spiders there are figures and descriptions of the palpi of males.

Notwithstanding the general recognition of the value of these organs for
taxonomic purposes our knowledge of their structure is very inadequate. Several
important contributions to this subject have been published and are well-known,
notably those of Westring ('61), Menge ('66), Bertkau ('75 and '78), Wagner
('87), Van Hasselt ('89), and Chamberlin ('04 and '08). Still we find, even in the
more recent publications, figures of palpi given with almost no effort to identify
their parts; and even when some of the parts are named we find different terms
applied to homologous parts in the descriptions of different genera.

The necessity of selecting, from the many terms that have been proposed
for parts of the palpi, a set to be used in this volume and the need of terms for
parts that had not been described led me to make a special study of the subject.
The results of this study were published recently (Comstock *io); but the more
important of them are repeated here so that they may be available for use in
this book.

THE MORE GENERALIZED TYPES OF PALPI

In all spiders the external opening of the reproductive organs of the male is
on the lower side of the abdomen near its base, in the epigastric furrow. Some
time before pairing the seminal fluid is emitted from this opening and is stored
in a tubular cavity in an appendage of the last segment of the palpus, where it
is retained until the pairing of the sexes, and from which it then passes to the
spermathecae of the female.

The transference of the seminal fluid from the opening of the reproductive
organs to the receptaculum seminis of the palpus has been observed by several

I06

Fig. 93-

TARSUS OF FILISTATA

HIBERNALIS

I, lateral aspect 2, oblique view

3, mesal aspect

Fig. 95.

PALPUS OF

HYI'OCHILUS

THOKELLII

Fig. 94.

DIAGRAM in THE

RECEP'l \< 1 I.I M

SEMINIS

Fig. 96-

PALPUS 1 >F

LOXOSC1 l 1 -

RITES! I \S

107

The External Anatomy of Spiders

writers. From the published observations it appears that the male spins a delicate
web upon which he emits the seminal fluid; after which the fluid is taken up by
the palpus.

The genital appendage of the palpus of the male is exceedingly complicated
in structure in the more specialized spiders, as in the Argiopidae; but it is com-
paratively simple in some of the more generalized families. A few illustrations
of the simpler forms will be given here.

The Filistata Type of Palpus. — in Filistata bibernalis, which is a very
common house spider in the South, is found the most simple type of male palpus
that I have seen among spiders. In the males of this species, the distal end of the
last segment of the palpus, the tarsus, contains a coiled tube (Fig. 93); this is the
receptaculum seminis. The proximal portion of this tube is slightly enlarged and
ends blindly; the distal part is slender and extends through a slender, twisted
prolongation of the tarsus ending at its tip by an open mouth. The modified
terminal portion of the tarsus, which contains the receptaculum seminis, is the
genital bulb. By looking directly at the tip of the palpus, instead of at one side
of it, it can be seen that the base of the bulb is situated in a cavity in the end of
the main part of the palpus (Fig. 93, a);* this cavity is the alveolus (Menge '66).
The slender prolongation of the bulb, which contains the terminal portion of the
receptaculum seminis is the embolus; the embolus is often termed the style.

A study of the palpus of Filistata gives a clue to the probable course of the
evolution of the genital bulb. It is evident that the bulb is a specialization of
the tip of the tarsus, and its most striking feature is the presence within it of
the coiled receptaculum seminis. Regarding the origin of the receptaculum
seminis, the fact that it is furnished with a transversely striated intima, like the
intima of a trachea, indicates that it is merely an invagination of the body-wall.
In its primitive form, it was probably a cup-like depression in the tip of the tarsus.

In its most perfect form, as seen in the more specialized spiders, the recep-
taculum seminis consists of three quite distinct parts: first, the proximal end of it,
the fundus, is enlarged so as to form a pouch, the wall of which is more delicate
than that of the other parts (Fig. 94, fu.); I have not been able to see taenidia in
the intima of this part, and infer that it serves as a compressible bulb; second, the
intermediate portion, the reservoir, is a large coiled tube occupying the middle
division of the genital bulb (Fig. 94, res.), in this part the taenidia of the intima
are well-developed and are sometimes very prominent; third, the terminal portion
constitutes the ejaculatory duct, this is a slender tube traversing the apical division
of the bulb (Fig. 94, ej. d.) the wall of this duct is often dark in colour, which
renders it easy to trace the course of the duct in an expanded bulb.

The tracing of the course of the ejaculatory duct is often the only method by
which the embolus can be recognized in a complicated palpus; for when the em-
bolus is small or when it is lamelliform a slender apophysis may be mistaken for it.

After the stage represented by Filistata had been reached, a shifting in the
position of the bulb occurred in most spiders. Instead of occupying a terminal
position, at the tip of the tarsus, it has moved to one side of the tarsus in all spiders
known to me except Filistata. In the tarantulas and in Hypochilus thorellii, the
most generalized in many respects of the true spiders, the genital bulb is nearly
terminal, but is, nevertheless, distinctly on one side of the tarsus (Fig. 95). In
other spiders it has moved to a greater or less extent toward the base of the
tarsus, which it has nearly reached in many, as for example in Loxosceles rujescens

(Fig. 96)-

In Hypochilus (Fig. 95) and in Loxosceles (Fig. 96), the alveolus is compar-
atively small; but in many spiders it is large, resulting in the tarsus being more or
less cup-like in form; this is shown in some of the figures of the more specialized
palpi given later. This cup-like form of the tarsus, as distinguished from its
appendage, the genital bulb, suggested for it the name cymbium, which is the
classical name of a small drinking vessel.

*In the figures of palpi of males given in this chapter, uniform abbreviations are used for the
names of the parts. A list of these is given at the close of the account on page 121.

108

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The Tarantula Type of Palpus. — In those spiders that are commonly
known in this country as tarantulas, and which represent the more generalized
of the two principal divisions of the order Araneida, there exists a comparatively
simple type of palpus; but in none of them that 1 have seen, or of which 1 have seen
figures, is it as generalized as is the palpus of Filistaia.

In the palpi of the tarantulas, the genital bulb has migrated to one side of the
tarsus; but it is still near the tip of this segment of the palpus (Fig. 97). A striking
feature of the bulb is that it is divided into two distinct segments. The smaller
basal segment may be termed the basal division of the bulb (Fig. 97, b. d.). The
larger segment consists of two parts: a large stout part, which may be termed
the middle division of the bulb (Fig. 97, m. d.), and a slender terminal portion,
which may be termed the apical division of the bulb (Fig. 97, a. d.) ; there is, however,

no distinct line between the middle and the apical

divisions, the one gradually merges into the other;

but in the more specialized palpi these two divisions

are distinctly separated.

In the articulating membrane which joins the

m. d.

Fig. 97. TARSUS OF
EURYPELMA

Fig. 98. GENITAL BULB OF
EURYPELMA CALIFORMCUM

bulb to the tarsus, there is on one side a distinct sclerite, which can be
seen by removing the bulb from the alveolus (Fig. 98, pet.); this is doubt-
less homologous with what has been termed the petiole in more specialized palpi.

The greater part of the wall of the bulb in the tarantula type of palpus is
very densely chitinized but there is a longitudinal area on the concave side of the
middle and apical divisions which is comparatively soft (Fig. 98, p.p.); it may be
that this part is distended by blood pressure at the time of pairing as is the ha?ma-
todocha in the more specialized palpi; but upon this point I have no data. This
soft strip may correspond to that portion of the spiral type of embolus, described
later, thai I have designated the pars pendula.

I in Palpus of Loxosceles. — In certain genera of the true spiders, the palpi
are as simple as in the tarantula type. In Loxosceles of the family Scytodidae,
for example (Fig. 96), although the bulb has migrated nearly to the base of the
tarsus, the bulb itself is very simple in structure 1 he basal division of the
bulb is inconspicuous; the middle division is nearly spherical, and the apical
division is long and slender. Here the receptaculum seminis is differentiated
into the three parts described above; the reservoir is large, while the ejaculatory
duct is very slender.

1 ill. Palpus of Dysdera. — In the family Dysderidae two quite distinct
types of palpi occur. In Artadna the palpus resembles very closely thai of Loxo-
sceles; but in Dysdera it is of a very different form (Fig. 99); this is due to the Fart
that the apical division of the bulb is not slender, and is sharply differentiated
from the middle division, its wall being much less densely chitinized. Bui there is
on each margin a distinct sclerite; and this part of the bulb bears distinct apoph-
yses. At the tip of the apical division there appears to be the beginning ol !
separation into embolus anil conductor.

IO9

The External Anatomy of Spiders

A summary of the parts of the tarsus in the more generalized types of palpi
of males is shown by the following table:

Body of tarsus or cymbium, containing the

alveolus
Genital bulb

Internal parts

Receptaculum seminis
Fundus
Reservoir
Ejaculatory duct
External parts
Petiole

Basal division
Middle division
Apical division or embolus

THE INTERMEDIATE TYPES OF PALPI

There are palpi which hold an inter-
mediate position as regards complexity of
structure between the comparatively simple
tarantula type and the exceedingly complex
forms to be described later. These inter-
mediate types occur in widely separated
portions of the araneid series; but agree in
their more essential characteristics; for sake
of brevity, I will discuss only a few ex-
amples of the intermediate types; and will
then pass to a description of forms in which
the maximum number of parts are found.

The most important characteristic of
these intermediate types is that the apical

division of the bulb is separated into two, more or less nearly, parallel parts.

One of these parts contains the ejaculatory duct of the receptaculum seminis,

this is the embolus; the other is intimately associated with the embolus and is

known as the conductor of the embolus, or

the conductor of the style, or, simply, as

the conductor.

A comparatively simple example of

this group of palpi is that of Atypus

bicolor. Here the terminal part of the

conductor is a broad concave plate (Fig.

100), in which the terminal portion of the

embolus rests.

A more complicated form of the

apical division of the bulb exists in

Hypochilus thorellii (Fig. 95). Here the

embolus is coiled about the conductor,

the terminal part of which is concave so

as to support the terminal portion of the

embolus; the tip of the conductor bears

a delicate membranous flap.

In Hypochilus the tarsus bears a

branch which supports a prominent bunch of bristles (Fig. 95, p. c); this may

be a rudimentary form of paracymbium, a part that is well-developed in Pachy-

gnatha.

A somewhat similar condition exists in Pachygnatha (Fig. 101). Here the

proximal part of the embolus is coiled about the conductor, which is a broad

twisted plate; and the terminal portion of the embolus is supported by the corre-
sponding part of the conductor. When at rest the apical division of the bulb

Fig. 99. PALPUS OF DYSDERA
INTERRITA

..■cym.

cmb.-

con.

'~ t.

Fig. 100.
TARSUS OF ATYPUS BICOLOR

I IO

The External Anatomy of Spiders

rests in the concave tip of the cymbium; bui in the specimen figured the bulb
has been extended so as to show the parts better; and the embolus and conductor
have been separated at the tip.

In Pachygnatba the tarsus is divided into two distinct parts, which are joined
by a movable articulation at the base. The larger part is the cymbium (Fig. 101,
cym.) the smaller part, the paracymbium: this is termed by some writers the accessory
branch of the tarsus (Fig. 101, p. c). The cymbium and the paracymbium re-
semble the other segments of the palpus in the nature of their cuticula and in the
fact that they are clothed with hairs.

THE MORE SPECIALIZED TYPES OF PALPI

In the development of the bulb of the male palpus in the more specialized
families of spiders there has been evolved an exceedingly complicated organ,
which is difficult to understand, on account of its small size and the fact that when

— emb.

m.d.

-p. c.

Fig. ioi.

GENITAL is I LB OF

PACHYGNATHA

EXTENDED

a. d.
m.d.

b.d.

Fig. 102.

EXPANDED BULB OF

LIXYPHIA PHRYUIANA

at rest it is compactly folded. Fortunately when such a palpus is boiled in a solu-
tion of caustic potash (10%) the bulb expands so that its parts can be seen: and
it preserved in glycerine, it remains flexible, so that it can be easily manipulated.
I he expanded bulbs figured below were prepared in this way. Even with the
best of preparations, it is sometimes difficult to make out the relation of parts;
this can be most easily accomplished by the use of a stereoscopic binocula;
microscope.

I he extreme specialization of the palpi of males is marked chiefly by the
development of hjsmatodocha, to be described later, and by an increase in the
number of distinct parts and appendages oi tin- bulb. I he maximum degree ol
specialization is to be found in the \r.inein.e, of which the palpi ol several species
of t>,in,:i are described later. I he understanding of the relation of the parts
of ilw hu'lh in tbi* genus will be facilitated by a study first ol a more simple form,
such .as is found in the Linyphiids.

1 I I

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The Linyphia Type of Palpus. — The very common Linyphia phrygiana
will serve as an example of the Linyphiidae.

As in Pacbygnatha, just described, the body of the tarsus of Linyphia consists
of two parts; the cymbium (Fig. 102, cym.), and the paracymbium (Fig. 102, p. c).
The alveolus is a circular- cavity near the base of the cymbium.

When the bulb is expanded, the three divisions of it are distinctly separated;
there being a slender neck between the basal division (Fig. 102, b. d.) and the middle
division (Fig. 102, m. d.) and also a similar slender neck between the middle di-
vision and the apical division (Fig. 102, a. d).

The wall of the basal division of the bulb consists of two parts; the basal
hasmatodocha, and the subtegulum.

The basal hamatodocha. — The genital bulb is attached to the cymbium,
within the alveolus, by means of a sac-like structure, which, ordinarily, is incon-
spicuous or completely concealed by other parts of the bulb, but which is very
conspicuous in the expanded bulb (Fig. 102, b. /;.). This has been named the
hamatodocha from the fact that at the time of pairing it is distended with blood.
The wall of the haematodocha appears to consist of elastic connective tissue;
hence the name spiral muscle applied to it by Menge is inappropriate. In fact
no muscle tissue has been found within the genital bulb. As similar extensible
blood sacs are present in more distal parts of the bulb of many spiders, 1 suggest
that this one be termed the basal hccmatodocha.

The subtegulum. — The proximal end of the basal haematodocha is attached to
the cymbium, the distal end, to a ring-like sclerite, for which 1 propose the term
subtegulum (Fig. 102, s. teg.) .

The middle division of the bulb. — The middle division of the bulb (Fig. 102,
m. d.) is that part which contains the chief portion of the receptaculum sem-
inis, the reservoir; its wall is the tegulum, and it bears an appendage, the median
apophysis.

The tegulum. — The term tegulum was applied by Wagner to all of the more
densely chitinized parts of the wall of the genital bulb; but as it is desirable that
the different sclerites should bear distinctive names, I propose that this term be
restricted to the sclerite that forms the wall of the middle division of the bulb.
In Linyphia, the tegulum, in this restricted sense is a ring-like sclerite (Fig. 102,

teg.).

The median apophysis. — Arising within the distal margin of tegulum there
is an appendage, only the tip of which is shown in the view of the bulb figured here
(Fig. 102, m. a.); this is the median apophysis. In many spiders this appendage
is very conspicuous; and to it have been applied several names. In fact in several
instances a writer has applied different names to this part in his descriptions of
different genera. Among the names that have been applied to it are clavis, unca,
and scopus. The term median apophysis occurs frequently in descriptions, and
is the older name for this part.

The median apophysis is articulated to the middle division of the bulb near
the point from which the apical division arises; and in some cases, as in Aranea,
it appears to be more closely articulated with a basal segment of the apical di-
vision, the radix, than it is with the tegulum.

The apical division of the bulb. — This division includes that portion of the
bulb which lies distad of the middle division; it consists of two subdivisions: the
conductor and the embolic subdivision. The embolic subdivision is traversed
by the ejaculatory duct and is composed of several distinct parts. In fact the
multiplication of parts of the embolic subdivision is the most characteristic feature
of the more specialized types of palpi as contrasted with the intermediate type
described above.

The conductor. — The conductor (Fig. 102, con.) is easily recognized by its
relation to the embolus, which rests upon it, and by its membranous texture.
Its attachment to the middle division of the bulb is by means of an exceedingly
delicate membrane.

In Linyplna the embolus rests upon the conductor throughout its length;
but in many genera the palpi of some of which are described later, the function
of the conductor is evidently to protect the tip of the embolus in the unexpanded

I 12

The External Anatomy of Spidus

bulb. In many cases the embolus is very long while the conductor is short; but
in every case the embolus in the unexpanded bulb occupies such a position that
its tip is protected by the conductor.

In most cases the conductor can be recognized at a glance by its peculiar
texture; sometimes it is chitinized to a considerable extent, but even then it usually
has a membranous margin; and in any . a*e it can be recognized by its relation to
the tip of the embolus in the unexpanded bulb.

The embolic subdivision. — Closely connected with the membranous base
of the conductor is the base of a separate subdivision of the apical division of
the bulb; as this portion bears the embolus it may be termed the embolic sub-
division.

The radix and the stipes. — Immediately following the membranous neck that
connects the middle and the apical divisions of the bulb and parallel with the
membranous base of the conductor, there are two segments of the embolic sub-
division; to the basal one of these ! apply the term radix (Fig. 102, ra); and to

the second, the term stipes (Fig. 102, 5/.). For

con ,&** a more distinctly segmented condition of the

base of the embolic subdivision see the figures

emb.

'-■ cynt.

Fig. 103. PALPUS OF LINYPHIA
PIIRYGIANA

Fig. 104.
PALPUS OF ARANEA FRONDOSA

of Eriophora circulata given later (Fig. 109 and 1 10), where the corresponding parts
bear the same letters.

The embolus. — The organ through which the ejaculatory duct opens, the
embolus, is comparatively simple in Linyphia, being a short spine-like part (Fig.
102, emb).

The lateral subterminal apophysis. — In Linyphia phrygiana there is developed
a remarkable plate-like apophysis, which serves to protect the exposed face of the
unexpanded bulb. In Fig. 102 (/. st. a.), only the edge of this apophysis is
shown; but in Fig. 105. the broader face of it is represented. I designate this
{he lateral suhterminal apophysis as it occurs on the Literal aspect of the unexpanded
bulb, and also to distinguish it from an apophysis developed on the opposite
face of the bulb in a suhterminal position, which occurs in certain other genera,

The terminal apophysis. — The embolic subdivision ends in a strongly chitinized
lobe, which may be designated the terminal apophysis 1 1 ig, 102. / a.). To apoph-
yses of this kind Menge applied the term retinacula; but as this term predicates
their function, which in some cases is obviously not that implied by the name,
I prefer apophysis with a modifying term indicating the position of the particular
apophysis described.

113

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The Aranea Type of Palpus. — I have selected the palpus of Aranea
frondosa as an example of an extremely specialized palpus. In Fig. 104
the entire palpus, with the bulb unexpanded, is represented slightly twisted
so as to show the ventral aspect of the proximal segments and the lateral aspect
of the bulb.

The proximal segments of the palpus. — This account of the palpi of male
spiders is devoted almost entirely to a discussion of the parts of the tarsus, the
proximal segments being well understood; there are, however, a few features of
these segments in the aranea type that merit attention here.

Upon the coxa there is a prominent spur, the coxal spur (Fig. 104, c. s.)\ and
upon the inner side of the femur near its base, there is a groove, the femoral groove,
into which the coxal spur fits when the palpus is extended forward. The presence
or absence of this spur and groove is an
important generic characteristic in the
Araneinaj.

The patella bears two prominent
spines at its apex (Fig. 104, p.). This is
also true in the males of several other

Fig. ios. LATERAL ASPECT OF AN

EXPANDED BULB OF ARANEA

FRONDOSA

Fig. 106. MESAL ASPECT OF AN
EXPANDED BULB OF ARA-
NEA FRONDOSA

genera; but in the greater number of genera of the Araneinae there is only a single
spine in this position.

The most striking feature of the tibia is its shortness, it being of about the
same length as the patella.

The tarsus.- — As in Linyphia. the tarsus of Aranea consists of two parts:
the cymbium and the paracymbium. Hut in Aranea the paracymbium (Fig.
105, p. c.) is merely a prominent apophysis arising from the base of the cymbium
and is not articulated with the cymbium by a movable joint as in Linyphia and in
Pachygnatha. The alveolus is much more extended than it is in Linyphia; here it
occupies nearly the whole length of the cymbium (Fig. 105, a).

The unexpanded bulb. — In the unexpanded bulb of Aranea frondosa, the
subtegulum (Fig. 104, s. teg.), tegulum (Fig. 104, teg.), and a terminal lobe of the
apical division of the bulb, bearing a long and slender terminal apophysis (Fig.

114

The External Anatomy of Spiders

104, t. a) are visible. Two prominent appendages can also be seen; the median
apophysis (Fig. 104, m. a.) and the conductor (Fig. 104, con.)

The expanded bulb. — Two figures of the expanded bulb are given here; Fig.
10s represents the lateral aspect of the bulb, the aspect that is exposed when the
bulb is not expanded; and Fig. 106, the mesal aspect, the one that is next the
cymbium in the unexpanded bulb.

The basal haematodocha is essentially the same as in Linyphia (Figs. 105 and
106, b. /'.).

The subtegulum is a ring-like sclerite but its form is like that of a seal-ring
being narrow on the mesal aspect of the bulb and wide on the lateral aspect (Fig.
106, s. teg.). This wider part of the subtegulum is all of it that is commonly ob-
served and has been termed the lunate plate.

the specimen represented in Fig. 106 was more fully expanded than that
used for Fig. 105. In the more expanded specimen there is evident a large
haematodocha between the subtegulum and the tegulum; this 1 designate the
middle haematodocha (Fig. 106, m. h.) The dark axial object seen through the
wall of the middle haematodocha is the fundus of the receptaculum seminis (Fig.
106, fit.).

The tegulum is also a ring-like sclerite, which is broad on the lateral aspect
of the bulb (Fig. 105, teg.), and is narrow on the mesal aspect (Fig. 106, leg.).

The median apophysis (Fig. 104 and 105, m. a.) is a conspicuous appendage,
which projects from the ventral side of the bulb. Although the position of this
appendage in Linyphia, in which the middle and apical divisions of the bulb are
distinctly separated, shows that the median apophysis is an appendage of the
middle division, in Aranea it appears to be articulated with the base of a proximal
segment of the apical division, the radix.

the conductor (Fig. 106, con.) arises at the base of the apical division and is
closely connected with the tegulum.

The radix (Fig. 106, ra.) is much larger than in Linyphia. Here it forms the
wall of one side of the basal segment of the embolic division of the apical division.
I hat this is the case is more clearly shown in the bulb of Eriopbora circulata (Figs.
1 10 and 111, ra.), where the segmentation of the embolic subdivision is much more
marked.

The stipes (Fig. 106, st.) is also much larger than in Linyphia; it is articulated
with the distal end of the radix. Like the radix, the stipes forms the wall of one
side of a segment of the embolic subdivision of the bulb, a fact which is also well
shown in the bulb of Eriophora circulata (Figs. 1 10 and 1 1 1, st.).

The embolus is borne by the embolic subdivision distad of the stipes; it pro-
jects ventrad between the distal end of the stipes, which is mesadof it, and the
conductor, which is laterad of it in the unexpanded bulb. In the specimen repre-
sented in Fig. 106, the distal end of the stipes and the embolus have been pushed
away from the conductor in the expanding of the bulb.

The distal beematodocba. — The most striking feature of the embolic subdivision
in the aranea type is the presence of a large haematodocha, which when expanded
overshadows all other parts. This haematodocha I designate the distal bamato-
docba (Figs. 105 and 106, d. /;.). It is doubtless due to the development of this
haematodocha that the radix and the stipes are restricted to one face of their re-
spective segments of the apical division in Aranea frondosa, the remaining parts
of the wall of these segments forming a part of the distal haematodocha.

The mesal subterminal apophysis. — On the mesal aspect of the bulb, there
arises from the distal haematodocha a prominent apophysis (Fig. 106, m. si. a.);
this may be termed the mesal subterminal apophysis.

'The lateral subterminal apophysis. — On the lateral aspect there is also an
apophysis borne by the distal haematodocha (Fig. 103, /. st. a.); this may be termed
the lateral subterminal apophysis.

1 he terminal apophysis. — In Aranea frondosa, the tip of the embolic sub-
division of the bulb ends in a spear-shaped apophysis (Fig. 105, /. a.); this may be
termed the terminal apopby

Tin Palpus 01 Arani \ Ocellata.' — A glance al the palpus of Aranea
ocellata will show that it is of essentially the same type as that of Aranea frondosa

I I -->

m.a.

b. h.

.p.c.

Fig. 107. LATERAL ASPECT OF AN EXPANDED
BULB OF ARANEA OCELLATA

Fig. 108. UNEXPANDED BULB
OF ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA

emb.

m.a.

-emb.

d.h.

Fig. log. UNEXPANDED BULB OF
ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA

i p.c.

Fig. no. EXPANDED BULB OF
ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA

I l6

The External Anatomy of Spiders

but is different in some details. It is figured here to illustrate the kind of varia-
tions in form that serve to distinguish closely allied species (Fig. 107). The
median apophysis differs markedly in form from that of A. frondosa; the tegulum
bears a small but distinct apophysis; the lateral subterminal apophysis bears two
prominent teeth; and the terminal apophysis is lacking, the embolic subdivision
ending in a blunt lobe.

The Palpus of Eriophora Circulata. — The most striking modification
of the aranea type of palpus, taking the palpus of Aranea frondosa as typical, is
that of Eriophora circulata, which is the most complex palpus that i have studied.
In the unexpanded bulb, there appears to be no resemblance to the bulb of Aranea
frondosa. In Eriophora circulata (Figs. 108 and 109), the bulb is very large and
the cymbium comparatively small and narrow (Fig. 109, cym.). The basal hzema-
todocha (Fig. 108, b. h.) is conspicuous, which is a result of the other parts of the
bulb being twisted into unusual positions. The median apophysis is large and
projects beyond the tip of the bulb (Fig. 108, m. a.). But the most remarkable
feature is an elbowed structure on the mesal aspect at the base of the bulb (Fig.
109). The fact that the ejaculatory duct can be traced throughout the length of

this elbowed structure gave the first
definite clue to the relations of the
-emb. parts of the bulb. The part contain-
ing the ejaculatory duct evidently

Wt.a.

jnl »i. st. a.
1

m.a.--

Fig. in. EXPANDED BULB OF

ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA

Fig. 112. UNEXPANDED BULB OF
\KA.\EA GIGAS

pertains to the apical division of the bulb, although it appears to arise from the
base of the bulb.

When the bulb of Eriophora circulata is expanded and untwisted, as occurs
in the process of expansion, the relations of the parts are more easily seen. Figures
1 10 and 1 1 1 represent two views of a preparation of this kind. If Fig. 1 1 1 be
studied it will be seen that the relations of parts are essentially the same as in
Aranea frondosa (Fig. 106); the basal ha;matodocha, subtegulum, and tegulum
follow in the same sequence; the median apophysis and the conductor project from
beneath the tegulum in the corresponding positions, and the elbowed structure,
which in the unexpanded bulb appears to arise at the base of the bulb is here
clearly seen to be the embolic subdivision of the bulb. I he most remarkable
differences are the lack of a prominent distal ha*matodocha and the fact that
the radix (Fig. 111, ra.) and stipes il ig, in, st.) are each .1 complete cylinder,
instead of merely forming one face of the wall of .1 segment of the apical division,
as in Aranea frondosa. At the distal end of the stipes, between this part and the
embolus and the terminal apophysis, thfere is a vestigial distal h.ematodocha
(Fig. 110, d. h.).

I I

The External Anatomy of Spiders

I n this species there is an apophysis, which like the median apophysis, is joined
by a flexible articulation to the tegulum within the cup-like cavity formed by the
distal margin of the tegulum (Figs. 109 and 1 1 1, p. m. a.); this may be termed the
paramedian apophysis. As 1 have not found this apophysis in other palpi, I do
not consider it a fundamental part.

The Palpus of Aranea Gigas. — The preceding species, Eriophora circulata,
and several others have been separated from Aranea by Pickard-Cambridge and
placed in the resurrected genus Eriophora of Simon. The peculiar form of the gen-
ital bulb in Aranea circulata appears to sustain this separation. Rut in the palpus
of Aranea gigas (Figs. 1 12 and 1 13) we find a form intermediate between the aranea
type and what may be termed the eriophora type.

In the unexpanded bulb of Aranea gigas (Fig. 112) the parts are twisted so
as to render the basal haematodocha conspicuous as in Eriophora circulata; but
otherwise there is little similarity in appearance to either this species or to Aranea
frondosa.

/>. c. -

con.

pet.-

^IS^|-"''

Fig. 113.
EXPANDED BULB OF ARANEA GIGAS

Fig. 114. EXPANDED BULB
OF DOLOMEDES FONTANUS

In the expanded bulb (Fig. 113) it can be seen that the embolic subdivision,
is intermediate in form between the two types, resembling the aranea type in
having a large distal haematodocha and a well-developed median subterminal
apophysis; and resembling the eriophora type in the form of the embolus, which
is lamelliform (Fig. 1 13, 2).

The Pisaurid Type of Palpus. — In the family Pisauridae there is a type of
palpus which, while it resembles the aranea type in its more general features,
differs from that type. in several important particulars. The palpus of Dolomcdes
jontanus (Figs. 1 14 and 1 1 5) may be taken as an example of this type.

A study of an expanded bulb of this species (Fig. 114) reveals the following
characteristics: There is a well developed petiole of the bulb (Fig. 1 14, pet.), which
in this species consists of two nodes with an unchitinized internode. The sub-
tegulum bears very prominent anelli (Fig. 1 14, an), which are described in a later
paragraph. The median apophysis is prominent (Fig. 1 14, m. a.). The conductor
(Fig. 1 14, con.) is extremely membranous. The radix and the stipes are not
developed as distinct segments. The etkbolus is of the spiral type (Fig. 1 14, emb.)

Il8

The External Anatomy of Spicier.

ex -a..

The terminal apophysis is modified into an organ for the support of the emh<
I I rig. i 14. ful.), which may be termed the fulcrum of the embolus. I his type of
terminal apophysis has been termed, incorrectly, the conductor. The true coi
ductor in this species, as in all others studied, is an organ whose function is to
protect the tip of the embolus in the unexpanded bulb. At the base of the terminal
apophysis, at the point where the embolus arises, there is a lamelliform lateral
subterminal apophysis (Fig. 1 14, st. a.).

In the unexpanded bulb (Fig. 1 1 5), the long embolus makes a cun e in 1 In- distal
end of the alveolus beyond the end of the bulb. The fulcrum is applied against
the embolus on its concave side, and has a
furrow on its distal face within which the
embolus rests. The distal part of the conductor
is wrapped about the tip of the combined
embolus and fulcrum, serving, as in all other
cases observed, as a protection to the tip of
the embolus.

The Thomisid Type of Palpus. — In the
family I homisidae, there occurs a striking
modification of the palpus, which consists of the
absence of the conductor of the embolus and,
in certain members of the family, of a special-
ization of one edge of the cymbium for the
protection of the tip of the embolus in the
unexpanded bulb. To this specialized part cf
the cymbium 1 have applied the term tutaculum
(tu-tac'u-lum); it is described and figured in the
general account of the Thomisidae on a later
page. It is best developed in the genus
Xysticus.

The Anelli of the Subtegulum. — In
Aranea, the chitinized part of the wall of the
basal division of the bulb, the subtegulum, is
reduced to a ring-like sclerite (Fig. 1 16, 1.); but
in certain other genera, the subtegulum is cup-
shaped or basket-like. In Agelena navia (Fig.
1 16, 2.), one side of the
subtegulum is greatly
thickened; at the prox-
imal end of this thicken-
ing, which corresponds
to the lunate plate,
t here is a condyle, which
articulates with the pet-
iole; and at the distal
end, there is a condyle,

which articulates with the tegulum. The other side of the cup-like subtegulum
contains in its wall several parallel, incompletely ring-like sclerites; these may
be termed the anelli of the subtegulum. In Dolomedes fontanus (Fig. ii<>.
the anelli of the subtegulum are greatly thickened and form prominent,
projecting ridges.

It is probable that the presence or absence of the anelli of the subtegulum,
and their nature when present will atford characters of use for taxonomic purposes

The Different Types 01 Embolus.— 1 he form of the embolus \ aries greatly
in dilferent species of spiders. Two principal types can he recognized, the connate
and the free; and the free type includes three subtypes.

The connate type of embolus. — In the connate type, the embolus is not separate
from the middle division of the bulb, hut is merely a more slender continuation
of it, as in the tarantulas. Loxosceles (Fig 96), and l-nulna.

The tree type of embolus. — In the free type "t embolus, there an- one or p
movable articulations between the embolus and the middle division of the bulb

Fig. 115. UNEXPANDED BULB

OF DOLO.MKDKS FONTAN1 -

Fig. 116. THREE KINDS OF SUBTEGULl M

I K)

Fig. 117. THREE TYPES OF EMBOLUS

The External Anatomy of Spiders

In the free type, the embolus varies greatly in form; but the different forms can
be grouped under three heads; coniform, iamelliform, and spiral.

A coniform embolus. — In this type, there may be a broadly expanded base;
but the projecting part of the embolus is a straight or slightly curved cone. The
embolus of Aranca jrondosa (Fig. 117, 1.) is an example of this type.

A Iamelliform embolus. — In this type the embolus is flattened, and may bear
a greater or less number of apophyses; an example of this type is found in Leptby-
pbantes minuta (Fig. 117, 2.).

A spiral embolus. — - In the spiral type, as seen in Agelend, for example, the em-
bolus is long, slender and coiled; and, in a well-expanded specimen, it is seen to

be composed of three
distinct parts; first, the
wall of the convex side
is densely chitinized,
forming a gutter-like
sclerite, which may be
termed the trunk of the
embolus (truncus) (Fig.
117, 3, t. f.); second,
the greater part of the
wall of the embolus is
membranous, and forms
a loose flap along the
concave side of the or-
gan, which contains the
ejaculatory duct; this
flap (Fig. 117, 3, p. p.)
may be designated the
pars pendula of the em-
bolus; third, at the dis-
tal end of the pars pendula, there is a triangular, chitinized area, through whicli
the ejaculatory duct opens (Fig. 117, 3, a. s.), this may be termed the apical
sclerite of the embolus.

The pars pendula and the apical sclerite may be completely withdrawn into
the trunk of the embolus, so that only the latter is visible; the embolus then appears
to be merely a strongly chitinized style; it is in this condition that it is usually
seen and described.

CONCLUSION

In the preparation of this account many palpi other than those figured here
have been studied; and it is believed that the series examined has been sufficiently
large to warrant the conclusions given regarding the fundamental parts of the
genital bulb. There remains to be determined the manner in which the different
types of palpi have been specialized in other families of the order, and the details
of the modifications characteristic of genera. This, however, is too great an under-
taking to be attempted at this time; and must be left for those who monograph
the different families.

I wish, however, to urge the importance of describing palpi from expanded
specimens. A large proportion of the figures of palpi that have been published
being of unexpanded examples, show comparatively little of the structure of this
organ. The labour involved in expanding the bulb of a palpus is very little;
a preparation can be made in five minutes; and in no other way can so much be done
to make possible a description that will describe.

The following tabular statement shows the relations of the fundamental
parts of the tarsus in the more specialized types of palpi; not all of these parts are
invariably present, and frequently subordinate apophyses are developed.

Body of the Tarsus

C/mbium, containing the alveolus
Tutaculum (in the Thomisida?)
Paracymbium

120

The External Anatomy of Spiders

Genital Bulb

Internal parti

Receptaculum seminis
Fundus
Reservoir
Ejaculatory duct
External parts

Basal di\ ision of the bulb
Basal haematodocha
Petiole
Subtegulum

Lunate plate
Anelli of the subtegulum
Middle division (if the bulb
Middle haematodocha
Tegulum

Median apophysis
Paramedian apophysis
Apical division of the bulb
Conductor
Embolic subdivision
Radix
Stipes
Embolus

Body of embolus
Pars pendula

Apical sclerite of the embolus
Distal ha'matodocha
Lateral subterminal apophysis
Mesal subterminal apophysis
Terminal apophysis, sometimes developed into a fulcrum

NAMES OF THE PARTS OF THE PALPUS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED FOR THEM IN THE

ILLUSTRATIONS

Accessory branch = paracymbium. Mesal subterminal apophysis, m. st. a.

Alveolus, a. Middle division of the bulb, m. d.

Anelli of the subtegulum, an. Middle haematodocha, m. h.

Apical division of the bulb, a. d. Paracymbium, p. c.

Apical sclerite of the embolus, a. s Paramedian apophysis, p. m. a.

Basal division of the bulb, b. d. Pars pendula of the embolus, p. p.

Basal haematodocha, b. b. Patella, p.

Clavis = median apophysis Petiole of the bulb, pet.

Conductor of the embolus, con. Radix, ra.

Coxa, c. Receptaculum seminis, r. s.

Coxal spur, c. s. Reservoir, res.

Cymbium, cym. Scopus = median apophysis.

Distal haematodocha, d. h. Spiral muscle = haematodocha.

I jaculatory duct, ej. d. Stipes, st.

Hmbolic subdivision of the bulb, e. s. Style = embolus.

Embolus, enib. Subtegulum, s. teg.

Femur,/. Tegulum, teg.

Fulcrum, Jul. Terminal apophysis, t. a.

fundus of the receptaculum seminis, fu. Tibia, t.

Lateral subterminal apophysis, /. st. a. Trochanter, tr.

Lunate plate = subtegulum in part. Trunk of the embolus, i. e.

Median apophysis, m. a. Tutaculum, tu.

THE THORAX

i
The thorax is that part of the cephalothorax which bears

the four pairs of legs. It is either slightly separated from the

head by a furrow, or completely coalesced with it.

The Tergum of the Thorax.— The dorsal aspect of the

thorax, or the tergum, is by far the most prominent part of this

12 I

The External Anatomy of Spiders

region of the body. It extends forward on each side of the
wedge-shaped hind end of the head, and covers to a greater or
less extent the sides of the thorax. It is often marked by a
median furrow and several radial furrows (Fig. 118); these are
lines along which muscles are attached to the inner surface of the
body-wall. The median furrow is sometimes called the dorsal
groove.

The Sternum. — The plate forming the ventral wall of the
thorax is the sternum (Fig. 119, 5.); it occupies the entire space
between the two rows of legs; and usually each lateral margin
bears four notches for the reception of the coxae of the legs.

The sigilla (sig'il-la). — In many tarantulas the sternum
is marked by circular or oval, impressed, bare spots, normally
four on each side; these are termed the sigilla. It should be noted
that sigilla is a plural noun; the term sigillae, sometimes used,
is, therefore, incorrect.

The Epimera (ep-i-me'ra). — Correlated with the great
development of the tergum of the thorax there is a marked re-
duction of the lateral portions, each of which usually consists
of a narrow band between the legs and the tergum. In some
cases this band consists of a series of four sclerites, one above each
leg. These sclerites are termed the epimera; each epimeron
represents the pleural portion of a segment.

The Legs. — There are always four pairs of legs. Each leg
consists of seven segments which are named, beginning with the
one next the body as follows: coxa, trochanter, femur, patella,
tibia, metatarsus and tarsus (Fig. 120). The tarsus usually bears
at its tip two or three claws.

In certain spiders, which have very long and slender legs,
the tarsus is rendered flexible by a large number of secondary
joints or "false articulations."

The prxtarsus (prae-tar'sus). — The claws are outgrowths
of a small terminal portion of the leg which is not ordinarily
distinguished from the tarsus. This terminal part with its
appendages has received the name prcetarsus (de Meijere 'oi).
As a rule the praetarsus in spiders is withdrawn into the pro-
jecting ventral part of the tarsus; but sometimes it is a distinct
segment (Fig. 121). This segment is termed by Simon ('92, p. 52)
the onychium, an unfortunate use of the term, as ordinarily it is
used as a synonym of empodium. (See p. 123.)

122

/TV

1 iV

'-*^

K§

Fig. 118.
CARAPACE OF A TARANTULA

Fig. rig.

VENTRAL ASPFXT OF

CEPHALOTHORAX

OF DLOBORUS

s, sternum

Fig. 120. LEG OF A SPIDER
i, coxa 2, trochanter .5, femur 4, patella 5, tibia 6, metatarsus 7, tarsus

Fig. 121. TIP OF THE LEG 01 \ SPED! R
SHOWLWG Till. PR I fARSI B

Fig. 122. (I WS Wl' VCI ESSORV
CLAW - "l \ SPIDER

123

The External Anatomy of Spiders

Fig. 123. A TENENT HAIR FROM THE
EMPODIUM OF CLUBIONA

The daws. — Each tarsus of the legs is armed with two or
three claws. When three claws are present, they can be desig-
nated as the paired daws and the third daw respectively.

The paired daws are placed side by side at the tip of the
upper surface of the tarsus, or of the praetarsus if it is distinct;
they are usually armed with a series of teeth (Fig. 121).

The third claw is a modified empodium (see below); when
present, it is situated below the paired claws. It is smaller than

the paired claws, and
is sometimes armed
with a small number
of fine teeth. Usually
the terminal portion
is bent down rather
abruptly (Fig. 121).

The empodium (em-
po'di-um). — When
the terminal portion
on the middle line of the praetarsus projects between or below
the paired claws it is termed an empodium. Sometimes the em-
podium is claw-like; it then constitutes the third claw described
above; sometimes it is a cushion-like pad or adhesive lobe; and
sometimes it is not devel-
oped as a distinct part.
Many terms have been
applied to this part; among
them a.rearolium,onychium,
palmula, plantula and pul-
villus.

The accessory daws. —
In many spiders, especially
those that spin webs, the
tip of the tarsus is armed
with several claw-like
opines; these have been

termed the accessory daws (Fig. 122). The accessory claws are
very different morphologically from the true claws, being modified
hairs each produced by a trichogen; while the true claws are
spine-like projections of the body-wall formed by many hypo-
dermal cells.

Fig. 124. TIP OF TARSUS OF CLUBIONA
WITH TERMINAL TENENT HAIRS

124

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The terminal tenent hairs. — The tarsi of spiders are armed,
in many species, with hairs of the type known as tenent hairs,
i. e., hairs that are dilated at the extremity (Fig. 123), and which
serve to aid the animal in clinging to smooth surfaces, probably
as in insects by means of an adhesive fluid excreted through
the cavity of the hair. A bundle of such hairs which exists in
certain spiders at the tip of the tarsus just below the claws may
be designated as the terminal tenent hairs (Fig. 124). This
bundle is often divided into two by a smooth line; these bundles
are the fasciculi unguiculares or claw-tufts of certain writers.
A small sclerite upon which the bundle or bundles of terminal
tenent hairs are borne is sometimes referred to as the hypopodium;
this is sometimes covered by the empodium.

The scapula (scop'u-lae). — The lower surface of the tarsus
and the metatarsus are often armed with tenent hairs. A brush
of such hairs is termed a scapula (pi. scopulcc). The scopula

Fig.

CALAMISTRUM OF ULOHORUS GEXKT'LATUS

and the terminal tenent hairs are frequently both present. A
thick clothing of ordinary hairs in this position is not a scopula.

The calamistrum (cal-a-mis'trum). — Those spiders that pos-
sess the peculiar spinning organ known as the cribellum have also
on the upper margin of the metatarsus of the hind legs one or two
rows of curved spines (Fig. 123); these constitute the calamistrum.
The calamistrum plays the part of a hackle in the formation of
the hackled band, characteristic of the webs of these spiders.

Male spiders on reaching the adult stage either lose the cribel-
lum and calamistrum or retain them in a vestigial condition;
but such males can be recognized by the wide separation of the
fore spinnerets.

The lyriform argans. — Near the distal extremity of each
segment of the leg except the tarsus there are one or more minute

123

r. V

1 he External Anatomy of Spiders

organs, which have been termed the lyriform organs (Fig. 126).

These are believed to be sense organs, and are discussed under

that head in the next chapter.

Leg formula:. — The relative lengths of the different pairs

of legs often afford distinctive char-
acteristics, which are much used in
descriptive works. The four pairs of
legs are numbered from before back-
ward; and in descriptions their relative
lengths are indicated by a formula
consisting of the numerals 1, 2, 3, and
4 arranged in the order of the relative
lengths of the legs of the spider de-
scribed beginning with the numeral
indicating the longest pair of legs.
Thus the formula 1432 indicates
that the first pair of legs is the longest
and the second pair the shortest.
Where two or more pairs of legs are
of equal length the fact is indicated
bv placing a bar or bracket above the

Fig. 126. LYRIFORM ORGANS " , . , , ,

of argyrodes numerals, thus the formula 2341

indicates that the third and fourth
pairs of legs are of the same length.

Spine formula:. — The number and arrangement of the spines
on the segments of the legs are often indicated by formulae. Thus
if there are two rows of spines of three each under the tibia of the
first legs and two rows of two each under the metatarsus of these
legs, the fact is indicated as follows: spines, tib.I., 3-3, met. I, 2-2.

THE ABDOMEN

The abdomen of spiders is more or less sac-like and almost
always without traces of segmentation except in a very small
area at its caudal end. In most spiders the abdomen is of an
elongated, rounded form; but an exceedingly great variation
in the form of this region exists.

The Parts of the Abdomen. — Owing to the almost total
lack of segmentation comparatively few distinct parts can be
recognized in the abdomen; spiders differ greatly in this re-
spect from insects, in which the abdomen is composed of a

126

The External Anatomy of Spiders

series of well-marked segments. The following parts can be
recognized in the abdomen of spiders.

The pedicel. — In all spiders the abdomen is joined to the
thorax by a slender stalk, the pedicel, which is usually concealed
from above by the convexity of the part immediately following
it. In certain spiders, which are ant-like in form, the pedicel
of the abdomen is conspicuous; but in many of these a prolonga-
tion of the thorax enters into the composition of the pedicel.
In the dorsal wall of the pedicel there is a slender, longitudinal
sclerite, which is termed
the brum of the pedicel; in
some genera the lorum is
divided by a transverse

Fig. 127. LORUM OF THE
PEDICEL OF P1SAURIXA

Fig. 128. ARANEA FROXDOSA,
SHOWING FOLIUM

suture (Fig. 127). In some forms there is also a sclerite in the
ventral wall, the plagula (plag'u-la). The plagula is well-
developed in the Dysderidae.

The muscle-impressions. — On the dorsal aspect of the abdo-
men, there are several pairs of muscle-impressions; these are
small, hardened, depressed points, which, like the radial furrows
of the thorax, indicate the points of attachment of muscles to
the body-wall. There is also near the base of the abdomen
a median, unpaired muscle-impression, which is more or less
prominent. In some spiders there are muscle impressions on the
ventral aspect of the abdomen.

127

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The folium. — The dorsal aspect of the abdomen in many
spiders is marked by an area with scalloped margins (Fig. 128);
this area on account of its leaf-like outline is termed the folium
(fo'li-um). The folium is frequently marked with spots; and
its margin is often a double stripe, the inner part of which is
dark and the outer part light.

The postabdomen. — At the caudal end of the abdomen there is a
small, conical or semicircular portion, which, when seen from above,
appears to consist of two or three segments; this is the greatly
reduced postabdomen. In the embryo, the postabdomen is much
more distinct, resembling in a striking degree the postabdomen
of scorpions (see Korschelt and Heider '99, Vol. 111., p. 50).

The epigastrium. — On the ventral aspect of the abdomen,
the basal portion is usually more convex than the remainder of
this aspect of the abdomen and is sometimes more densely chiti-
nized; this area is termed the epigastrium (Fig. 129, e.).

The epigastric furrow. — A furrow separating the epigastrium
from the more caudal portion of the abdomen is known as the
epigastric furrow (Fig. 129, ef.). In this furrow there is, on the
middle line of the body, the opening of the reproductive organs,
and at each end, the opening of a lung.

The furrow of the posterior spiracle. — This is a transverse
furrow on the ventral aspect of the abdomen, a short distance
in front of the spinnerets, in which is situated the posterior
spiracle, in most of those spiders that have only three spiracles.
In a few cases, as in Anyphazna and Glenognatha, the third spiracle
is situated near the middle of the ventral aspect of the abdomen.

The abdominal sclerites.- — Owing to the lack of segmentation
in this region of the body comparatively few sclerites can be recog-
nized on the abdomen, still in some spiders the abdomen bears
one or more distinct sclerites. There may be a dorsal sclerite,
one on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen; an epigastric sclerite,
one on the epigastrium; a ventral sclerite, one in the region behind
the epigastric furrow; and an infra-mammilliary sclerite, a semi-
circular one situated in front of the spinnerets, i. e., below the
spinnerets when the spider is hanging suspended by a thread.

The spiracles. — The spiracles or openings of the respiratory
organs, are of two quite distinct kinds; one leading to lung-like
organs, the lung-slits, and one leading to tracheae of the ordinary
type, the tracheal spiracles.

128

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The lung-slih. — Of these there are either one or two pairs.
The first pair, which is always present except in one small, exotic
family (Caponiidae) is situated one at each end of the epigastric
furrow. In the tarantulas and in the family Hypochilidae there
is a second pair of lung-slits behind the first (Fig. 129).

The tracheal spiracles. — In the true spiders except the family
Hypochilidae there are ordinary tracheae in addition to the book-
lungs. In most cases the ordinary tracheae open by a single
spiracle, which is usually situated on the middle line, a short
distance in front of the spinnerets; but sometimes this single
spiracle is near the middle of
the ventral aspect of the ab-
domen. In a few spiders there

r t

Fig. 129. VEXTRAL ASPECT OF
ABDOMEN OF A TARANTULA
e, epigastrium
ef, epigastric furrow

Fig. 130. DYSDERA INTERRITA,

A TRUE SPIDER WITH A PAIR

OF TRACHEAL SPIRACLES

BEHIND THE LUNG-SLITS

is a pair of tracheal spiracles situated just behind the lung-slits;
these can be distinguished from lung-slits by the absence of
external indications of book-lungs. Compare Figs. 129 and 130.

The epigynum (e-pig'y-num). — The internal reproductive
organs open on the middle line of the abdomen in the epigastric
furrow. In the male the opening is simple, without any intro-
mittant organ, the palpi taking the place of such an organ. In
the female the two ovaries open by a common opening, which in
some spiders is not accompanied by any specialized chitinous
structure; this condition exists in Tetragiuiiha and other genera.
But in most of the true spiders (Argiopoidea) there is connected
with this outlet a more or less complicated apparatus, which is
termed the epigynum.

120

The External Anatomy of Spiders

As the epigynum varies greatly in form in different species,
even in closely allied ones, it often affords the most distinctive
characteristics for recognizing species; but these features are not
fully developed until the spider reaches maturity.

In its more simple form the epigynum is merely a lid-like
plate covering or accompanying the opening of the oviduct; it
is a chitinized portion of the cuticula of the segment in front of
the epigastric furrow; and it is situated on the middle line of the
body at or very near the hind margin of this segment.

As explained in the following chapter, there are connected
with the internal reproductive organs of the female one or more
pouches for receiving and retaining the spermatozoa, the sperma-

Fig. 131. DIFFERENT TYPES OF EPIGYNA
a, Pirata montanus b, Trabca aurantiaca c, Lycosa pikei

theccE. When there is a single spermatheca, as in Segestria, it
opens on the middle line, behind the opening of the oviduct.
But in most spiders there are two spermathecae which open
separately, one on each side of the opening of the oviduct; and
when there is a specialized epigynum, these openings are con-
nected with it. In fact it seems probable that the primary
function of the epigynum is to receive and direct the palpal
organ of the male, and that the various specific forms of epigyna
are correlated, in each case, with corresponding specific differ-
ences in the palpus of the male; these peculiarities tending to
prevent the union of individuals of different species. Frequently,
when there is a well-developed epigynum, the openings of the
spermathecae are on the outer face of the epigynum and can be
easily seen (Fig. 131, a b); as their position varies in different
species it is often indicated in specific descriptions. Some writers
refer to them as the openings of the epigynum.

Even when the openings of the spermathecae are covered by

130

The External Anatomy of Spiders

a part of the epigynum, they are sometimes visible in mounted
specimens in which the epigynum has been rendered transparent
(Fig. 132).

Care should be taken not to mistake the glands of the sperma-
thecae, which are often dark and show through the body-wall,
for the openings of the spermathecae. (See account of these glands
in the following chapter.) A secondary function of the epigynum,
as an ovipositor, is discussed later.

An example of a comparatively simple epigynum is that of
Pirata montanus (Fig. 131, a); this is a nearly plain plate, with
the two openings of the sperm-
athecae near the posterior lateral
corners. A somewhat more
complicated form is illustrated
by the epigynum of Trabea au-
rantiaca (Fig. 131, b); in this
the plate is depressed or fur-
rowed longitudinally, and the
depressed area is divided by a
ridge-like elevation, which di-
vides the depression into two
furrows or channels, each of
which leads to the opening of
the spermatheca of the corre-
sponding side; this ridge-like
elevation has been termed the
guide by Chamberlin ('04), as
its function "seems clearly to
be that of a guide to the male
embolus, controlling the course of the latter and facilitating its
entrance to the spermatheca." In many cases the guide extends
laterally on each side at its posterior end; this is true to a slight
extent in the epigynum of Trabea, but more markedly so in that
of many species of Lycosa, where the lateral expansions often
conceal the openings of the spermathecae, as in the epigynum
of Lycosa ptkei (Fig. 131, c). In some epigyna the posterior
portion of the median part of the guide and the anterior edge of
the lateral extensions of it are extended horizontally in plate-like
expansions, these are termed, by Chamberlin ('08) the lateral
plates or ala- of the guide.

131

Fig. 132.

EPIGYNUM OF THERIDIOX
DIFFERENS
1, surface view 2, view when made trans-
parent *, openings of the spermathcae
s. spermathecae z, tube leading
from the spermatheca to the
vagina (alter Emerton)

The External Anatomy of Spiders

A more complicated form of epigynum is found, for example
in spiders of the genus Aranea, where there is developed an ap-
pendage which is usually soft and flexible, and which is termed
the scape or ovipositor, as it is believed to have a function analogous
to that of the ovipositor of insects (Fig. 133). In some cases,
however, the form of the scape is such that it is difficult to see
how it can function as an ovipositor; and it may be that in these
cases it functions during copulation instead of during oviposition.
The scape of Aranea gemma (Fig. 134) will serve to illustrate this
point. Here the scape is immovable and the spoon-shaped tip
seems fitted to receive some part of the palpus of the male rather
than to be of use in placing the eggs. When there is a well-
developed scape the tip of it is usually more or less spoon-shaped,
this part of the scape is termed the cochlear. The basal plate of
the epigynum which bears the scape, and which forms a vaulted,
porch or hood that covers the opening of the oviduct was named
by McCook ('8c)-'93) the atriolum (a-tri'o-lum).

A still more complicated form of epigynum is found in some
of the Linyphiidae and Argiopidae, where the ovipositor consists
of two finger-like projections: first, the more common one, the
scape, which arises from the atriolum, and consequently in front
of the openings of the oviduct; and second, one which arises
behind the opening of the oviduct; this is termed the parmula
(par'mu-la). Each of these projections may be grooved on the
face next its fellow, the two grooves forming a tube (Fig. 135).

The entrance to the reproductive organs of the female is
termed the vulva; it is an open space covered by the epigynum.
Some writers apply the term vulva to the epigynum.

In some spiders there is a well-defined sclerite on each side
of the epigynum; these sclerites are termed the lateral scleritcs.

The epigastric plates. — There is on each side in front of the
lung-slit a hard plate; these are termed the epigastric plates.

The Spinning Organs. — The spinning organs are situated
near the caudal end of the abdomen, on the ventral aspect, and
consist usually of three pairs of spinnerets, to which is added in
certain spiders another organ, the cribellum.

The spinnerets. — The spinnerets are finger-like in form and
usually six in number (Fig. 136), although sometimes there are
only four, and the number may be reduced to a single pair.

The pairs of spinnerets are usually designated as the upper,

132

Fig. 133. EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA ANGULATA VAR. SILVATICA

a, ventral view b, lateral view

Fig. 134. EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA GEMMA

Fig. 135. EPIGYNUM OF R-ATHYPHANTES NIGRINUS
o, ventral view b, lateral view

<; .>'

Fig. 136. LATERAL ASPECT OF BODY OF AGELENA SHOWING
1 ill SPINNERETS OF ONE SIDE

133

The External Anatomy of Spiders

||l§gpfSc

the lower, and the median, these terms referring to their relative
positions when the spider is hanging suspended by a thread;
but as very many spiders never assume this position, it is better
to designate the three pairs of spinnerets as the fore, middle, and
hind respectively.

The hind spinnerets usually consist each of two segments,
but sometimes of three or even four segments; the middle spin-
nerets are not seg-
mented; the fore
spinnerets consist
almost always of
two segments each.
The sides of
the spinnerets are
comparatively firm,
but the terminal
portion is mem-
branous; this mem-
branous terminal
portion constitutes
the spinning field.
The spinning field is
always surrounded
by hairs, some of which are simple and some are barbed. These
are movable and appear to have some function in the spinning;
it is probable that some of them at least are tactile.

Sometimes, at least, the spinning field is surrounded by a chit-
inous ring, to one side of which is attached the tendon of a flexor
muscle (Fig. 137), which probably moves the spinneret as a whole.*

The spinnerets represent the fourth and fifth pairs of abdominal legs (the
other abdominal legs are lost in the course of the development of the embryo).
Each of these legs acquires, at an early embryonic period, a biramose form, like
the primitive appendages of the Crustacea, consisting of an axis to which is at-
tached an inner endopodite and an outer exopodite. Spinning glands may develop
on both rays, and it is thus suggested that the primitive number of spinnerets was
eight. No existing spiders are known in which these eight spinnerets are fully
developed as functional organs; in Liphistius, however, (which also shows the
generalized character of a segmented abdomen) the full number are present, but
only the four external ones (exopodites) possess functional spinning glands. In
the true spiders, we find present six functional spinnerets, the four large ones
being derived from the exopodites of the fourth and fifth pairs of abdominal
appendages, while the middle spinnerets are developed from the endopodites of
the fifth pair, the endopodites of the fourth pair being altogether wanting or else
concerned in the formation of the cribellum or colulus. (Korschelt and Heider,
111., p. 79.)

134

Fig. 137. FORE SPINNERET OF ARANEA

a, chitinous ring around the spinning-field b, tendon of flexor

muscle c , outlet of cylindrical gland (after Bucholz and Landois)

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The spinning tubes.— - There are many small tubes distributed
over the surface of the spinning field ; these are the spinning tubes;
it is through them that the silk is expelled from the body. Usually
ach spinning tube consists of two segments, a stouter basal one and
a more slender terminal one (Fig. 138). Some spiders have one
hundred or more of these spinning tubes on each spinneret. The
number of spinning tubes varies greatly in different species, and

c d. e.

Fig. 138. THE SPINNING TUBES OF
ARANEA SEEN IN OPTICAL SECTION
a, of aciniform glands b, of pyriform
glands c , of ampullate glands </, of
cylindrical glands e, of aggre-
gate glands (after Apstein)

Fig. 140. THE SPIXXERETS

AND THE CRIBELLTJM OF

AMAUROBIUS

Fig. 13Q. HIND SPIXXERET OF STEA-
TODA SHOWING TWO SPIGOTS
WITHOUT A TIP (after Apstein)

Fig. 141. THE CRIBELLUM

(il AMAUROBIUS -MORE

ENLARGED

also in different individuals of the same species. It may be that the
number increases with age; but we lack observations on this point.

Although the spinning tubes are almost invariably borne by
the tip of the spinneret, in a few cases there is one or more on
the basal segment of a two-jointed spinneret.

There are four different types of spinning tubes: the long
and cylindrical (Fig. 138, a); the short and conical (Fig. 138, b);
a form much larger than the preceding, which is termed a spigot
(Fig. 138, c, d, e); and a spigot without a tip (Fig. 139).

Different kinds of silk are spun from the different kinds of
spinning tubes.

1 }5

The External Anatomy of Spiders

The cribellum (cri-bel'lum). — In certain families there is,
in front of the spinnerets, an additional spinning organ, which on
account of its sieve-like appearance when slightly magnified, is
named the cribellum. The cribellum consists of a transverse
plate, which is usually divided by a delicate keel on the middle
line of the abdomen into two equal parts (Fig. 140 and Fig. 141).
On each of these areas, which are often a little convex, there are

very many spinning tubes, the
number greatly exceeding the
number of spinning tubes borne
by the spinnerets. The number
of spinning tubes varies greatly,
however, in different species;
thus Bertkau ('82) found 500 in
the undivided cribellum of Dio-

Fig. 142. THE TIP OF THE ABDOMEN ,. , , o • u u if

of loxosceles c, coiuius hma and about 4800 in each half

of the cribellum of Stegodyphus
lineatus, making 9600 in all. Or, to select observations based upon
genera represented in the United States, Bertkau found over 300
spinning tubes in each half of the cribellum of a Dictyna, and about
3600 in the undivided cribellum of an Uloborus. It is evident that
the threads issuing from the spinning tubes of the cribellum are ex-
ceedingly small. These threads are used, doubtless, in the forma-
tion of a part of the hackled band which is a characteristic feature
of the webs of spiders possessing a cribellum and a calamistrum.

The Colulus (col'u-lus). — Immediately in front of spin-
nerets there is in certain spiders a slender or pointed appendage,
the colulus (Fig. 142, c). The function of this organ is unknown.
It is wanting in the tarantulas, the Drassidae, and those families
in which the cribellum exists. It has been suggested by Menge
that the colulus is the homologue of the cribellum.

The Anus. — The posterior opening of the alimentary canal
is situated just behind the group of spinnerets, on the lower side
of the last segment of the postabdomen.

The Stridulating Organs. — In some of the comb-footed
spiders, Theridiidae, the males possess a stridulating organ, con-
sisting of a scraper on the abdomen and a file on the thorax;
this organ is described in the account of that family. Stridulating
organs borne by the mouth-parts are described on page 2f

136

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CHAPTER III: THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF

SPIDERS

The more general features of the internal anatomy of spiders
are illustrated by the accompanying plate (Fig. 143) upon which
the different systems of organs are indicated by different colours,
except that the muscles and the endosternites are omitted, in
order that the diagram should not be too complicated. This
plate represents the organs projected upon a vertical, median
section of the body.

The black outline of the figure represents the body-wall;
the respiratory organs which are, morphologically, infoldings
of the body-wall, are indicated by the same colour; the alimentary
canal is coloured yellow; the blood vascular system, red; the
nervous system, blue; the poison gland, the silk glands, and the
Malpighian vessels, green; and the reproductive organs, purple.

THE BODY-WALL

a. THE THREE LAYERS OF THE BODY-WALL

In that division of the Animal Kingdom to which spiders
belong, the phylum Arthropoda, the outer covering of the body
serves as a skeleton as well as a protecting shield. It is more
or less firm in texture, and to its inner surface and to inward
projections of it are attached the muscles that serve to move the
body and its appendages; and within the cavity bounded by it
are located the viscera. In other words, the body-wall is a firm
tube containing the softer structures. The appendages of the
body, that is, the legs, the mouth-parts, and the spinnerets, are
also tubular, and the cavity of each communicates with the
general body cavity.

Three, more or less distinct, layers can be recognized in the
body-wall of a spider; first, the outer protecting layer, the cuticula;
second, an intermediate cellular layer, the bypodcrmis; and third,
an inner, delicate, membranous layer, the basement membrane.

137

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

As the outer and inner layers are derived from the hypodermis,
it will be described first.

The hypodermis. — The hypodermis is the active, living part
of the body-wall. It consists of a single layer of cells (Fig.
144, by).

Certain of the hypodermal cells become highly specialized
and produce the hollow hairs with which the body is clothed;
such a hair-forming cell is termed a trichogen (Fig. 144, tr), each
trichogen remains connected through a pore in the cuticula,
the trichopore, with the cavity of the hair it produces.

Other hypodermal cells are modified so as to form glands,
which open through pores in the cuticula, either directly or
through the tubular hairs. These glands may be either unicellular
or multicellular.

The cuticula. — Outside
is a firm layer, which pro
as a support for the inter
cuticula. The cuticula con
an outer, usually thinner,
pigments that produce the

of the hypodermis, there
tects the body and serves
nal organs; this is the
sists of two layers: first,
layer, which contains the
colours of the outer sur-

Fig. 144- DIAGRAM OF A SECTION OF THE BODY-WALL

cu.i, primary cuticula at. 2, secondary cuticula hy, hypodermis

bm, basement membrane tr, trichogen s, seta tp, trichopore

face, the primary cuticula (Fig. 144, cu. /); and second, an inner,
usually thicker, layer, devoid of pigment, the secondary cuticula
(Fig. 144, cu. 2). The secondary cuticula is laminate; the laminae
remind one, when the cuticula is seen in section, of the lines of
growth of an exogenous tree.

The well-known firmness of certain parts of the body-wall
is due to the presence in the cuticula of a substance which has
been termed chitin. This substance bears some resemblance
in its physical properties to horn; but it is very different from
horn in chemical composition.

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

When freshly formed, as is done before each moult, the cutio
ula is flexible and elastic, and certain portions of it, as at the nodes
of the body and of the appendages, and throughout the greater
part of the wall of the abdomen in spiders, remain so. But the
greater part of the cuticula of the cephalothorax and of the
appendages becomes firm and inelastic; this is probably due
to a chemical change resulting in the production of chitin.
What the nature of this change is or how it is produced is not
yet known; but it is evident that a change occurs; we may speak,
therefore, of chitinifed cuticula and of non-chitini{ed cuticula.

The hinge-like movements of the body and of the appendages
are made possible by the non-chitinized condition of the cuticula
at the joints.

A portion of the body-wall that is sharply distinguished
from surrounding portions by being chitinized is called a sclerite;
and a narrow line between two sclerites is termed a suture.

I he basement membrane. — The inner ends of the hypodermal
cells are bounded by a very delicate, but more or less distinct,
membrane, the basement membrane (Fig. 144, bm).

b. THE CUTICULAR APPENDAGES

Under the head of cuticular appendages are included those
outward prolongations of the body-wall that do not form an in-
tegral part of it, being separated from
it, in each case, by a flexible joint;
such appendages are the hairs or
setae and the movable spines.

The fixed spines, as for example
those borne by the abdomen of
Micrathena (Fig. 145), are not re-
garded as appendages. These form
an integral part of the body-wall and
differ only in size from mere nodules
on the surface of the body.

The hairs or setcr.- — These vary
greatly in their external form; but
no distinction, except in degree of
stiffness, can be made between the extremely slender and very
flexible type commonly called hairs and the stiffer one commonly

Fig. 145. MICRATHENA

139

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

Fig. 146. SECTION

OF A SETA
n, nerve (after Hilton)

Fig. 147. GLANDULAR

HAIR OF A CATERPILLAR

(after Hilton)

termed setae; the two are morphologically the same, and they
grade by insensible degrees into each other.

As regards their internal structure, the hairs of spiders, like
those of insects and other arthropods, differ markedly from
the hairs of mammals, being hollow.

Each hair of a spider arises from a more or less cup-like
cavity in the cuticula of the body-wall, which may be made more
pronounced by a ring-like elevation of the cuticula surrounding

it (Fig. 144); but the latter feature is not an

essential one. The sheath of the hair is con-
tinuous with the cuticula

of the body-wall, but at

its base it is infolded and

more or less flexible, thus

forming the joint. The

cup-like cavity in the

cuticula from which the

hair arises is situated at

the end of a pore in the

cuticula, the trichopore.
The trichopore and
the base of the hair is filled with a prolongation of the hypo-
dermal cell that formed the hair, the trichogen (Fig. 144, tr).

The above may be regarded as the essential features of an
arthropod hair. Certain writers refer to protecting hairs, which
are supposed to present only these features, and to serve merely
to protect the body. My own observations, based, it is true,
chiefly on the hairs of insects, lead me to doubt the existence
of hairs that are merely protective in function.

In most cases, if not in all, each hair is supplied with a minute
nerve, connecting the hair with a subhypodermal nerve plexus
(Fig. 146); this feature has been carefully worked out with insects,
and it is not probable that it is radically different in spiders.
Hairs furnished with a nerve are regarded as organs of special
sense; in most cases they are organs of touch, the tactile hairs;
these are discussed later.

A very important modification of the ordinary type of a
hair is that known as the glandular hair. These are hairs that
serve as outlets of hypodermal glands (Fig. 147); several kinds
of these, that are found in insects, have been described. The

140

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

type of glandular hair that interests most the student of spiders
is that known as the tenent hairs. These are found on the
terminal segments of the legs and serve to aid in walking. For
figures of tenent hairs see page 124.

C. THE ENDOSKELETON

In the Arthropoda, as already stated, the outer covering
of the body serves as a skeleton as well as a protecting shield;
but in addition to the firm outer layer of the body-wall, there
are found, within the body-cavity certain hard parts which serve
for the attachment of muscles; these constitute the endoskeleton.

The presence of these parts that constitute the endoskeleton
forms only an apparent exception to the statement that the
body-wall constitutes the skeleton;
for these parts are merely infolded
portions of the body-wall.

The apodemes. — The infoldings
of the body-wall that serve for the
attachment of muscles vary greatly
in form; they may be merely a
slight ridge or they may be a prom-
inent projection into the body
cavity. In the latter case such a
projection is termed an apodeme.

The endosternites. — In the ce-
phalothorax of spiders there is a
horizontal plate above the ventral
ganglion and below the alimentary canal, to which many muscles
are attached. This is known as the endojternite; but as there are
endosternites in the abdomen also, it may be specifically desig-
nated as the endosternite of the cephalothorax (Fig. 148).

The question of the origin of this endosternite has been much
discussed; but it has been shown by Bernard ('96) that it is formed
by the fusion and expansion of the tips of four pairs of apodemes,
a pair extending into the body cavity in front of each pair of
legs. The position occupied by these apodemes is that of the
original intersegmental spaces, vestiges of which remain as lines
across the sternum in very young spiders. The endosternite
is, therefore, a part of the body-wall, like the more simple apodemes.

Fig. 148. THE EXDOSTERNITE OF
THE CEPHALOTHORAX OF ARANEA
(after Schimkcwitsch)

141

The Inter nal Anatomy of Spiders

The endosternites are termed aponeurotic plates by sorru
writers, who believe that they are formed by the coalescence
of the tendons of muscles.

A so-called aponeurotic plate, which occurs in the pedicel
of the abdomen, has been described. This, however, occupies
a very different position from that of the endosternites, being
near the dorsal body-wall above the aorta. The source of this
plate has not been determined.

In the sac-like portion of the abdomen, there are vestiges
of an endoskeleton. These vestiges are three centres of attach-

Fig. 149. THE THREE ABDOMINAL ENDOSTERNITES AND THE

PRINCIPAL MUSCLES ATTACHED TO THEM

en 1, en 2, en 3, first, second, and third abdominal endosternites (after Schimkevvitsch)

ment of muscles, one opposite the epigastric furrow, one a short
distance back of this, and one near the furrow of the posterior
spiracle (Fig. 149, en 1, en 2, en 3); these may be designated
as the first, second, and third abdominal endosternites respectively.
The endosternites of the sac-like part of the abdomen are
described by authors as intermediary tendons; but it seems clear
to me that they are serially homologous with the endosternite
of the cephalothorax. Correlated with the loss of the abdominal
appendages there has been a reduction of the connection of the
endosternites with the body-wall.

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

A striking feature of the muscles of spiders, and also of other
arthropods, is the distinctness of the muscular fibres; each muscle
being composed of a number of distinct, more or less isolated,
straight fibres; and the fibres constituting a muscle are not
enclosed in a common tendinous sheath, as is the case with
vertebrates.

142

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

In appearance the muscles are either colourless and trans-
parent, or yellowish white; and are of a soft, almost gelatinous
consistence. When properly treated with histological reagents,
and examined with a microscope of moderately high power, they
present numerous transverse striations, like the voluntary muscles
of vertebrates. Unstriped muscles are rare with arthropods;
certain muscles, which have been supposed to be unstriped,
show striations when properly treated.

The chief muscles are attached to the inner surface of the
body-wall, to infoldings of it, the apodemes, and to the endo-
sternites described in the preceding section. There are also
prominent muscles attached to the
alimentary canal, especially to the
sucking stomach (Fig. 150).

It is not within the province
of this book to enter into a de-
scription of the separate muscles;
there is space for only a few general
statements.

The muscles of the cephalo-
thorax are extremely well devel- p.g ijo ^TRAM 0F A

oped; while those of the abdomen transverse section of the

are ereatlv reduced This is ror- cephalothorax showing

are greatly reduced. 1 nis is cor- THE PRINCIPAL muscles

related, to a considerable extent, (after Schimkewitsch)

with the greater number and size

of the appendages of the cephalothorax, the appendages of the

abdomen, excepting the spinnerets, having been lost, and to

the presence in the cephalothorax of a powerful sucking stomach.

The muscles of the body-wall. — The muscles of the body-wall,
which form the most prominent feature of the muscular system
of the larvae of insects that are commonly studied, are very
greatly reduced in spiders. This is doubtless due to the fact that
the segments of the cephalothorax are fused in spiders so that
there can be no movements between them, and that the abdomen
is practically unsegmented. There are present, however, ves-
tiges of both circular and longitudinal "skin-muscles."

The muscles of the appendages. — A very large proportion of
the muscles of the cephalothorax serve to move the appendages.
Some of these have their origin on the inner surface of the body-
wall and others, on the endosternite; in each case they extend

143

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

to the basal segment of the appendage. There are also muscles
within the appendages that produce the movement of the separate
segments of the appendages. Figure 151, which represents the
musculature of a leg of Thelyphonus, one of the Pedipalpida,
will serve as an illustration of the arrangement of the muscles in
the leg of an arachnid.

The muscles of the sucking stomach. — The muscles of the
sucking stomach are also very prominent; these are discussed
in the section of this chapter treating of the alimentary canal.
The muscles of the abdomen. — It is much more difficult
to trace out the muscles of the abdomen than it is those of the
cephalothorax. In the abdomen the muscular system is greatly

reduced and other viscera are so greatly
developed that the muscles are overshadowed
by them. Schimkewitsch ('84) gives a diagram
showing the arrangement of the principal
muscles of the abdomen of Aranea (Fig. 149).
In this figure are represented the three
vestiges of the endoskeleton of the sac-like
part of the abdomen (Fig. 149, en
1, en 2, en 3,); these I have des-
ignated as the first, second, and
third abdominal endosternites re-
spectively.

The most prominent of the
muscles of the abdomen is a series
extending from the pedicel of the
abdomen to the three endosternites
successively and from the third endosternite to the spinnerets.
These have been named the longitudinal ventral muscles.

From the second and third endosternites there extend two
pairs, one from each, of dorsoventral muscles. These are the
muscles that are attached to the two pairs of more prominent
muscle impressions, that appear externally as depressed points
in the dorsal wall of the abdomen.

To the first abdominal endosternite are attached in addition
to the longitudinal muscles, muscles from the book-lungs, and
a muscle from the opening of the reproductive organs.

To the second abdominal endosternite are attached several
muscles extending to the body-wall.

Fig. 151.
THE MUSCLES OF A LEG
OF THELYPHONUS
(after Borner)

144

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

The muscles extending backward from the third abdominal
endosternite are those that move the spinnerets.

THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS

In the order Araneida, two types of respiratory organs are
found; first, the book-lungs; and second, the tubular tracheae.
Some members of the order possess only one of these types; but
the greater number of spiders possess both.

The number of respiratory organs is reduced in spiders to
two pairs; and in most true spiders the second pair open by a
single spiracle on the middle line of the body.

The more generalized spiders preserve two pairs of book-lungs.
This condition is retained by Liphistius, all of the tarantulas,
and by a single family of the true spiders,
the Hypochilidae. Excepting the Hypochi-
lidae, most true spiders have a single pair
of book-lungs; but in the Caponiidae, which
is not represented in the United States,
both pairs of respiratory organs have been
transformed into tubular tracheae.

The accompanying figures (Fig. 152,
1-4) show in a diagrammatic way the dis-
tribution of the two types of respiratory
organs among the families of spiders; in
these figures the tracheal spiracles can be
distinguished from lung-slits by the absence
of external indications of book-lungs. The
distribution is as follows:

1. With two pairs of book-lungs;
Liphistius, the tarantulas (Avicularioidea),
and the Hypochilidae.

2. With one pair of book-lungs and
one pairof tracheal spiracles; the Filistatidae,
the Oonopidae, and the Dysderidae.

3. With one pair of book-lungs and a single tracheal spiracle;
all true spiders (Argiopoidea) except the Hypochilidae, Filistatidae,
Oonopidae, Dysderidae, and Caponiidae.

4. With two pairs of tracheal spiracles; the Caponiidae.
The hook-lungs. — These are sacs filled with air each of which

open by a slit-like spiracle on the ventral aspect of the abdomen

Fig. 152. DIAGRAMS

SHOWING THE

DISTRIBUTION OF THE

TWO TYPES OF
RESPIRATORY ORGANS

1, Liphistius, the taran-
tulas,and Hypochilidae

2, Filistatidu.-. Oonopidae,
and D : rid

3, all true spiders except
the five families men-
tioned here

4, Caponiida:

145

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

near its base. Their position is indicated externally on the
living animal as pale trapezoidal spots with rounded angles (Fig.
153). The first pair open, one on each side, in the epigastric
furrow; when there is a second pair they open a short distance
back of the first pair.

From the anterior wall of each sac there project a series of
horizontal, leaf-like folds, which has suggested the name of book-

Fig. IS3-

VENTRAL ASPECT

OF THE ABDOMEN OF

A TARANTULA

Fig. 154- DIAGRAM OF A BOOK-LUNG

1 , lung-slit

2, space filled with blood

3, leaves of the book -lung

lungs (Fig. 143). But as these leaves are also attached to the
lateral walls of the sac, the lung has been more aptly compared
to that form of a letter-file that consists of an envelope divided by

manypartitions into numerous
compartments (Lang '91).

Each leaf of the book-
lung consists of a flattened,
sac-like fold of the body-wall,
and hence of two lamellae.
These lamellae are connected
at frequent intervals by ver-
tical supports; and the leaves
are kept apart, so that the air
can circulate between them,
by a palisade of vertical,
knobbed spines on the upper surface of each (Fig. 154). At
and near the free edge of the leaves, these spines are longer, and,
instead of being knobbed, divide at the tip into several branches,
which anastomose with branches of adjacent spines (Fig. 155).

146

Fig. 1 ss. THE TIPS OF TWO LEAVES
OF A BOOK-LUNG
i,i, palisade of spines on dorsal lamella

2, vertical support between lamellae contracted

3, vertical support stretched

4, blood-cavity

5, globule of blood (after Bcrteaux)

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

The blood passes from the body-cavity into the lumen of each
leaf, and the respiratory process takes place through the walls
f the leaves.

A hint regarding the mode of origin of this highly specialized
respiratory apparatus is afforded by the comparatively simple
lung-sacs of the Microthelyphonida, referred to on page 13.

The tubular trachea. — The distribution of tubular tracheae
among the different families of spiders, and the number of tracheal
spiracles are indicated by Fig. 152. In most cases the tracheae
open by a single spiracle, situated on the middle line of the ventral
aspect of the abdomen; sometimes this spiracle is near the middle

Fig. 156.

TUBULAR TRACHE/E

OF ANYPH.ENA

(after Bertkau)

Fig. IS7-

SECTION OF HEART

AND PARTS LYING ABOVE IT

(after Vogt et Yung)

of the length of the abdomen, but usually it is only a short dis-
tance in front of the spinnerets. In a few spiders there is a pair
of tracheal spiracles situated just behind the lung-slits. These
can be distinguished from lung-slits by the absence of external
indications of book-lungs.

The tracheae are paired organs even when they open by a
single spiracle; this is well-shown by the figure of the main trunks
of the tracheae of Anyphana (Fig. 156). As to the histological
structure of the tracheae, they, like the tracheae of insects described
in many text-books, present the same layers as does the body-wall,
namely, a chitinous intima lining the cavity and continuous
with the cuticula of the body-wall; an epithelial layer surrounding

147

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

this and continuous with the hypodermis; and, bounding the
epithelium next to the body-cavity, a basement membrane,
continuous with the basement membrane of the body-wall.
As with insects the chitinous intima is thickened spirally. The
ramifications of the smaller tracheal branches appear to be much
less extended than are the tracheae of insects; this is probably
due to the book-lungs being the chief organs of respiration.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

The circulatory system of spiders is an incomplete one;
that is, for only a portion of its course does the blood flow in
blood-vessels; during a part of its course it enters the body-
cavity, as is the case with insects, where it fills the space not
occupied by the internal organs. The extent of the vascular
system, however, is much greater with spiders than it is with
insects.

The heart.- — The heart resembles the heart of an insect in
position, being situated in the abdomen a short distance within
the middle line of the dorsal body-wall, and above the intestine.
In many spiders it is sunken to a greater or less depth in the mass
of alimentary tubules; it is then difficult to expose it by dissection.
Its position is represented in Fig. 143; and in Fig. 157 are
represented some details not shown on the coloured plate. In
this figure, a, represents the body-wall; b and c, a lobe of the ali-
mentary tubules, of which b is the chalky layer; d, the dorsal
longitudinal venous sinus; e, the pericradium, to be described
later;/, the pericardial cavity; g, the longitudinal muscular layer
of the heart; h, the annular muscles of the heart; and k, a cardiac
ligament.

The wall of the heart is composed of three distinct layers:
an inner, very delicate, structureless intima; an intermediate
muscular layer; and an outer, connective tissue layer. The
intima is so delicate that it is usually difficult to demonstrate its
presence. The muscular layer consists chiefly of annular muscles;
but there are also longitudinal fibres. The connective tissue
layer is composed of slender fibres between which elongated
nuclei can be seen.

The heart in spiders is a simple tube not divided into chambers
by valves, as is the heart of insects.

148

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

The more general features of the heart of different types of
spiders are represented diagrammatically by the drawings in
Fig. 1 58, which are based on a series of figures given by Causard
('96). The first drawing (1) represents the heart of a four-lunged
spider; the second (2), the usual form of the heart in the two-
lunged spiders; and the third (3), the heart of Dysdera. The

I 2 3.

Fig. 158. DIAGRAMS OF HEARTS OF SPIDERS (after Causard)

heart is somewhat enlarged toward the anterior end and tapers
toward the posterior end. From the anterior end extends the
aorta (a); from the posterior end, the caudal artery (ca);and from
its sides, the lateral abdominal arteries (la). The cavity of the
heart is more or less expanded at regular intervals, forming
paired diverticula, from which the arteries arise. The wall of
the heart is pierced by a series of paired openings, the ostia
From the heart extend a considerable number of strands, the
cardiac ligaments (cl). At some distance from the heart, but

149

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

completely surrounding it, is a thin-walled sac, the pericardium
(p). Between the pericardium and the heart is the pericardial
cavity (pc). The first one or two pairs of cardiac ligaments are
larger than the others and function as pulmonary veins (pv).
Each of the above-mentioned parts is described more in detail
below.

The ostia of the heart. — The wall of the heart is pierced by
several pairs of openings by which the blood is received into
the heart; these are the ostia (Fig. 158, o). In the four-lunged
spiders there are four pairs of ostia (Fig. 158, 1); in most of the
two-lunged spiders there are three pairs (Fig. 158, 2); but in some
of the two-lunged spiders, as in Dysdera (Fig. 158, 3), the number
is reduced to two.

The diverticula of the heart. — As indicated above, the cavity
of the heart is more or less expanded at regular intervals; and
these expansions form paired diverticula. In the more generalized
spiders, six pairs of these diverticula can be recognized. The
four pairs of ostia of the heart in these spiders are in the walls
of the first, second, third, and fifth pairs of diverticula respectively
(Fig. 158, 1); the fourth pair of diverticula are midway between
the third and fourth pairs of ostia, and bear only vestigial liga-
ments; the sixth pair is near the caudal end of the heart. In
more specialized spiders the number of diverticula is more or
less reduced; those which are most constantly prominent are the
first, third, and fifth pairs, in the walls of which are the three
pairs of ostia characteristic of most two-lunged spiders; the sixth
pair are also usually well-marked, as from them arise a pair of
arteries.

The aorta. — The aorta (Fig. 1 58, a) is the forward prolon-
gation of the heart. It extends through the pedicel of the abdo-
men into the cephalothorax (Fig. 143). As it enters the
cephalothorax, it gives off some small branches which ramify
among the muscles of the posterior part of the cephalothorax.
It then extends forward to a point near the sucking stomach,
where it divides into two trunks, one passing forward on each
side between the sucking stomach and the caecal ring. Each of
these trunks sends branches to the appendages, to the eyes,
to the muscles, and to other organs of its side. This account of
the course of the branches of the aorta is based on the figures and
descriptions given by Causard ('96) and those by Petrunkevitch

150

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

('10 b). It differs markedly from that commonly given in the
text-books of zoology.

The lateral abdominal arteries. — In the four-lunged spiders,
there are four pairs of lateral abdominal arteries; these extend
from the second, third, fifth, and sixth pairs of diverticula (Fig.
158, 1, la). In the two-lunged spiders, the first of these four
pairs is lacking (Fig. 158, 2); and in Dysdera, the first and second
pairs are lacking and the third is greatly reduced in size (Fig.
158, 3).

The caudal artery. — The caudal artery is the backward pro-
longation of the heart (Fig. 158, ca). It divides into many
small branches, which supply blood to the spinnerets and to the
abdominal viscera.

The pericardium. — At some distance from the heart, but
completely surrounding it is a thin-walled sac, which is termed the
pericardium (Fig. 158, p). The space between the pericardium
and the heart is the pericardial cavity (Fig. 158, pc).

The cardiac ligaments— -The heart is supported by a con-
siderable number of ligaments. These extend from the heart
to the body-wall; some of them extend dorsally, some ventrally,
and some laterally. In Fig. 158, only the laterally extending
ligaments are represented. In Fig. 157 a dorsally extending
ligament (k) is shown; and several of them are represented in
Fig. 143. The laterally extending cardiac ligaments are termed,
by some writers, the alary muscles, by analogy with the "wings
of the heart" of insects. But Causard ('96) has shown that the
cardiac ligaments are not muscles, but are formed of connective
tissue.

Each cardiac ligament is formed by a bundle of connective
tissue fibres, which is inserted in the heart, and is enclosed in
a tubular prolongation of the pericardium (Fig. 158, cl). The
cardiac ligaments that extend laterally have been designated the
exocardiac ligaments; those that extend dorsally, the epicardiac
ligaments; and those that extend ventrally, the hypocardiac
ligaments.

1 he pulmonary veins. — In the basal part of the abdomen
of the four-lunged spiders, there are two pairs of large vessels
which convey the blood from the two pairs of book-lungs to the
pericardial cavity; and in the two-lunged spiders, there is a single
pair of these vessels; these are the pulmonary veins (Fig. 158, pv).

151

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

According to Causard, the pulmonary veins are large hollow
exocardiac ligaments, which serve as veins in addition to their
function of holding the heart in place. In fact he regards the
other exocardiac ligaments as reduced pulmonary veins, which
have lost their venous function, and become merely ligaments.

The venous circulation. — From the arteries the blood passes
into the spaces of the body-cavity between the viscera, bathing
the various organs. It then passes into two longitudinal sinuses,
one dorsal and one ventral, which lead to the base of the abdomen.
Here it is purified by the book-lungs; and then it passes through
the pulmonary veins to the pericardial cavity, from which it
enters the heart through the ostia.

The blood is also purified to a greater or less extent by tubular
tracheae as it is in insects; but the extent of the ramifications of
these tracheae varies greatly in different spiders.

THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

The alimentary canal of arthropods is a tube extending from
one end of the body to the other. With some arthropods, as the
larvae of insects, it is a nearly straight tube; with others, as most
adult insects, it is greatly lengthened, being much longer than the
body and, consequently, more or less coiled within it. This
increase in the length of the alimentary canal gives an increased
surface for the performance of its functions.

In spiders, and other arachnids an extended area of the
digestive tract is obtained in a different and peculiar manner;
instead of a lengthening of the intestine, there have been de-
veloped extensive diverticula, extending in different directions
from it (Fig. 143).

Three chief regions of the alimentary canal are recognized;
namely, the fore-intestine, the mid-intestine, and the hind-
intestine. These regions differ in their histological structure,
a difference due to different embryological origin. The fore-
intestine and the hind-intestine are developed from an infolding
in each case of the ectoderm, the germ layer from which the body-
wall is formed. And these regions are lined with a chitinous
layer, the intima, which is a continuation of the cuticula of the
body-wall. On the other hand, the mid-intestine is developed
from the entoderm and is lined by an epithelium.

152

Fig. 159. SECTION OF WALL
OF SUCKING STOMACH

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

The fore-intestine is that portion of the alimentary canal
that is developed from an infolding of the ectoderm at the anterior
end of the embryo, the stomodceum. It consists of the pharynx,
the oesophagus, and the sucking stomach.

The histological structure of the fore-intestine is the same
as that of the body-wall; the lumen being lined with a chitinous
intima, a continuation of the cuticula; and, surrounding this,
there is an epithelial layer, continuous
with the hypodermis; and this in turn
is bounded on the side toward the
body-cavity by a basement mem-
brane. The muscular coat of the
fore-intestine, which is well-marked
in some arachnids, is absent in the
true spiders. Figure 1 59 represents a
small portion of the wall of the
sucking stomach, in this the layers are
shown and also the attachment of
some muscles.

The pharynx. — The pharynx or mouth-cavity is situated
between the rostrum and the sternum. It extends in a more or
less nearly vertical direction (Fig. 143). It is bounded in front

by a plate borne by the rostrum, which
may be termed, by an analogy drawn from
the anatomy of insects, the epipharynx; and
is bounded behind by a plate borne by the
sternum, which by a similar analogy may
be termed the hypopharynx.

By bringing together the lateral margins

of the epipharynx and the hypopharynx, a

tube-like cavity is formed into which the

spider sucks the juices pressed from its prey

by the mouth-parts, the tufts of hairs borne

by the mouth-parts preventing the escape

of the liquid food.

The epipharynx is marked by many transverse striae (Fig.

[60) which lead to a longitudinal slit in its middle line, which in

turn leads to the opening of the oesophagus. Thus if the mOUth-

Fig. 160.
THE EPIPHARYNX

'53

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

cavity be closed as tightlyas possible bythe pressing togetherof the
epipharynx and the hypopharynx there will still remain an open
way for the passage of the last drop of fluid pressed from the prey.
At the upper end of the pharynx near the entrance to the
oesophagus there is a straining apparatus consisting of hairs which
prevent the entrance of solid food into the oesophagus.

Several pairs of muscles extend from the walls of the pharynx
to the body-wall; one of these, the retractor of the pharynx,

is attached to the
upper end of the
pharynx and is
sometimes very
large.

Within the ros-
trum there is an
unpaired gland, the
pharyngeal gland,
which opens into
d- the pharynx near
the beginningof the
oesophagus.

The (Esopha-
gus.— This is that
part of the fore-
intestine that con-
nects the pharynx
with the sucking
stomach; it extends
in a more or less
nearly horizontal
direction and con-
sequently nearly at right angles to the pharynx. It is tubular
in form; and the intima of its dorsal and lateral walls is thick
and strong, forming an inverted gutter-like sclerite, which is
transversely striated. The epithelium of the oesophagus is
greatly reduced. The hind portion of the oesophagus is sur-
rounded by the central nervous system; the course of this part
of it is indicated in Fig. 143 by dotted lines.

The sucking stomach— -The sucking stomach is an enlarged
portion of the fore-intestine, whose function is indicated by its

Fig. 161. CROSS-SECTION OF THE SUCKING STOMACH

AND ADJACENT PARTS

a, dorsal plate b, lateral plate c, ventral plate d, endosternite

ee, sphincter muscles (after Vogt et Yung)

154

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

name. It is situated just behind the point where the fore-
intestine emerges from the nervous collar and rests upon the endo-
sternite (Fig. 143). The chitinous intima of the fore-intestine is
greatly thickened in this region, affording a firm support for
powerful muscles. In a cross-section of the sucking stomach
(Fig. 161), it can be seen that the thickened intima consists of
four longitudinal plates; a dorsal and a ventral one, and one
on each side. From the dorsal plate very strong muscles extend
to the ental surface of the median furrow of the cephalothorax;
and from the ventral and the lateral plates muscles extend to the
endosternite. These act to enlarge the cavity of the organ.
Opposed to the muscles just described, the sucking stomach
is supplied with sphincter muscles (Fig. 161). These it will
be observed are outside of the wall of the intestine and do not,
therefore, strictly speaking, form a muscular coat of the intestine.

b. THE MID-INTESTINE

The mid-intestine begins a short distance back of the sucking
stomach; it differs greatly from the fore-intestine both in histo-
logical structure and in general form.

The distinctively characteristic feature in the structure
of the mid-intestine is the absence of a chitinous intima; this
portion of the alimentary canal being
lined with a layer of cells, the essen-
tial digestive element of the organ
(Fig. 162, ep). This digestive epithe-
lium rests on a basement membrane,
outside of which there is a peritoneal
layer composed of fibres, presumably
of connective tissue (Fig. 162, p). No
muscular coat has been observed; but

. , , . . . . . Fig. 162. CROSS-SECTION OF

outside of the peritoneal layer there mid-intestine (after Bertkau)
is a cellular layer, which has been

termed by several writers, but 1 believe incorrectly, a peritoneal
layer (Fig. 162, f). This so-called peritoneal layer, I believe to
be the fat-bodv, which is described later.

The most striking feature of the mid-intestine of spiders is the
presence of an extensive system of diverticula by means of which
the extent of the digestive epithelium is greatly augmented.
In the cephalothorax, these diverticula are in the form of large

•55

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

simple caeca; but in the abdomen they are much-branched tubules,
forming a great mass, which has the general appearance of a
gland. These diverticula may be designated as follows:

The anterior cceca. — At the beginning of the mid-intestine
a caecum extends forward on each side of the dorsal muscle
of the sucking stomach (Fig. 163 ac). These two caeca
often unite in front of this muscle, thus forming what has

been termed the ring-
stomach, or the ccecal ring.
The lateral cceca. —
From each anterior cae-
cum, four lateral caeca
arise. These extend later-
ally and ventrally and
each ends in or near a coxa
of a leg (Fig. 163, Ic).

The alimentary tubules.
— In the anterior part of
the abdomen, there arise,
from a somewhat ex-
panded portion of the
mid-intestine, several
much-branched dorsal di-
verticula; these constitute
the alimentary tubules.
These are developed to
such an extent that they
form the most prominent
part of the viscera of the
abdomen.

The mass of alimen-
tary tubules was described by the early writers as the liver and
by later ones as a digestive gland; but it has been shown that
the epithelium of these tubules does not differ from that of the
main portion of the mid-intestine; and that the food penetrates
to the tips of the tubules and is absorbed by the tubules.

C THE HIND-INTESTINE

The hind-intestine is the terminal portion of the alimentary
canal; it is that part that is developed from an infolding of the

156

Fig. 163. DORSAL VIEW
OF THE CEPHALOTHORACIC PORTION OF THE

ALIMENTARY CANAL

0, oesophagus s, sucking-stomach ac, anterior caeca,

united in front Ic, lateral caeca (after Leuckart)

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

ectoderm at the posterior end of the embryo, the proctodeum.
It, consequently, like the fore-intestine, resembles the body-wall
in its histological structure, there being a chitinous intima, an
epithelial layer and a basement membrane. It differs from the fore-
intestine in possessing a more or less well-developed muscular coat.

The stercoral pocket. — The most striking feature of the hind-
intestine is the presence of a large, bladder-like diverticulum of
its dorsal wall, which is situated near the place of union of the
mid-intestine and hind-intestine (Fig. 143). It serves as a res-
ervoir of fecal matter and is termed, therefore, the stercoral pocket
(ster'co-ral).

The Malpighian vessels. — There is a pair of tubes which
open into the alimentary canal near or at the place of union of
the mid-intestine and hind-intestine; these are the Malpighian
vessels (Mal-pe'ghi-an or Mal-pig'hi-an). Each of these tubes
is branched and the branches ramify among the alimentary
tubules. They are supposed to correspond to the kidneys in
function.

Some writers maintain that Malpighian vessels open into
the mid-intestine. If this should prove to be true, they cannot
be homologous with the Malpighian vessels of insects, which are
developed from the proctodeum.

The rectum. — The rectum is a simple tube extending from
the stercoral pocket to the anus.

THE ADIPOSE TISSUE

In spiders the greater part of the adipose tissue or fat-body
is intimately associated with the mid-intestine and its diverti-
cula. In the case of the simple caeca of the mid-intestine, situated
in the cephalothorax, the fat cells form a continuous investing
sheath, which has been termed, incorrectly, the peritoneal coat.
In the abdomen, the fat-body completely fills the spaces between
the alimentary tubules, and surrounds them as a whole.

In many spiders the fat-body presents a chalky appearance
due to the presence in it of fine particles, which are believed to
be crystal-like remains of the food. These "fecal crystals"
are sometimes very abundant in the dorsal superficial portion
of the mass; and, showing through unpigmented portions of the
cuticula, produce conspicuous white markings.

157

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

In the cephalothorax, between the nervous system and the
body-wall, there is a layer of fat cells which appear to perform
a function similar to that of the urate cells of insects.

THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The two sexes are distinct in all Arachnida; and in each sex,
the reproductive organs lie in the abdomen, and open near its base.

a. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE MALE

The testes and their ducts. — The
testes are situated in the anterior part
of the abdomen, between the ventral
body-wall and the longitudinal ventral
muscles. They are two long tubes
(Fig. 164, /); which are closed behind,
and are continued in front as two, long,
thin, and often much coiled sperm ducts,
the vasa defer entia (Fig. 164, vd). The
two vasa deferentia open into a common
pouch, the seminal vesicle (Fig. 164, sv);
and the seminal vesicle opens in turn
through a single opening on the middle
line of the body in the epigastric furrow.
The palpal organ. — There is no
copulatory organ directly connected with the outlet of the
reproductive glands; but the seminal fluid is transferred to the
female at the time of the pairing of the sexes by means of a
highly specialized appendage of the palpus of the male. This
organ is described in detail in the preceding chapter.

b. THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE FEMALE

The internal reproductive organs of the female consist of
the ovaries, the oviducts, the uterus, the vagina, and one or more
pouches for the reception of the seminal fluid at the time of pair-
ing, the spermathccce. The vagina and the spermathecae are
invaginations of the body-wall and, like other invaginations of
the body-wall, are lined with a chitinous intima, which is a con-
tinuation of the cuticula; while the uterus is lined with an epithe-
lium similar to that lining the oviducts.

.58

Fig. 164. DIAGRAM OF THE

REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF

THE MALE

/, testes 8 d, vasa deferentia

s v, seminal vesicle (after Bertkau)

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

In certain generalized spiders, as Atypus, Segestria, Dysdera,
Tetragnatha, and others, the spermathecae are diverticula of the
vagina. In these cases there is only a single external opening
of the reproductive organs. But in most spiders, the sperma-
thecae are more or less detached and have separate external
openings. In these cases there are
three external openings of the repro-
ductive organs, the opening of the
vagina, and a pair of openings of the
afferent ducts leading to the sper-
mathecae. In this type of reproductive
organs, a tube connects the sperma-
thecae of each side with the vagina.
Figure 165 is a diagrammatic repre-
sentation of this type.

The ovaries. — The ovaries are situ-
ated in the abdomen below the intes-
tine and above the longitudinal ventral
muscles (Fig. 143). They are sur-
rounded by silk glands and the ali-
mentary tubules, and are two broad
tubes bearing numerous ovarian fol-
licles and appearing like a cluster of
grapes. The free ends of the ovaries

are sometimes .grown together so as to pro-
duce a ring-like structure (Fig. 166).

The size of the ovaries varies greatly, de-
pending on the state of the development of the
eggs. Just before the egg-laying period, they
become greatly distended and occupy a consider-
able part of the abdominal cavity.

The oviducts. — Each ovary opens through
a short oviduct; and these in turn open into a
common pouch, the uterus, which leads to the
vagina; and the vagina opens on the middle line
of the body in the epigastric furrow.

The spermatheca:. — The spermathecae vary
in number. In those spiders where the sperma-
thecae are diverticula of the vagina, as described above, there
are, according to Engelhardt ('10), two in Pachygnatha, three

Fig. 165. DIAGRAM OF THE
INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS OF THE FE-
MALE OF ARANEA

0, ovary od, oviduct u, uterus

v, vagina s, spermatheca

os, opening of the spermatheca

1, tube connecting the spermatheca

with the vagina

g, gland of the spermatheca

ig. 166. RING-
LIKE OVARIES
OF A SPIDER

0, ovaries
od, oviduct
s, spermathec
(after Lang)

159

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

in Tetragnatha, and five in Segestria; and according to Bertkau
('75) twenty-eight in Atypus. In those spiders where the sperma-
thecae are detached there may be either one, two, or three con-
nected with the afferent duct of each side.

The duct leading from the external opening of a spermathecae
to the large reservoir of this organ frequently bears a prominent
enlargement with densely chitinized walls (Fig. 165, g). This
organ was described by Schimkewitsch ('84), who states that the
chitinous layer of its wall is pierced by numerous pores and is
surrounded by an epithelium composed of very high cells, which
are probably glandular. 1, therefore, propose the term glands
of the spermathecce for these organs. As the chitinous wall of
these glands is often dark in colour, they may be seen through
the body-wall and appear as a pair of dark spots, which may be
mistaken for the openings of the spermathecae.

The external openings of the afferent ducts of the spermathe-
cae are in the epigynum, which is described in the preceding
chapter.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

a. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

In fully developed true spiders, the central nervous system
is entirely concentrated into the cephalothorax. In early em-
bryonic stages there is a pair of ganglia in each segment of the
body; but in the course of the embryonic development a cephali-
zation of the ganglia takes place which results in their being
consolidated into a single mass surrounding the oesophagus
(Fig. 143). In the tarantulas, however, there is a small gang-
lion in the pedicel of the abdomen.

The brain. — That part of the central nervous system that
lies above the oesophagus is termed the brain; from it arise the
optic nerves and the nerves of the chelicerae.

The subcesophageal ganglion. — That portion of the central
nervous system lying below the oesophagus is termed the sub-
cesophageal ganglion. From this ganglion arise the nerves ex-
tending to the pedipalps and those extending to the legs; and
from the posterior end extend two large abdominal nerves. The
brain and the subcesophageal ganglion are not distinct, as they are
in insects, but are consolidated into a single mass surrounding
the oesophagus.

160

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders
b. THE VISCERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

A visceral nervous system has been proven to exist in spiders
and in other Arachnida. It consists of an unpaired nerve con-
nected with the brain by paired nerves and running along the
oesophagus and stomach. Ganglia connected with the ventral
chord have also been described as belonging to the visceral nervous
system (Lang).

C. THE EYES

The number and the position of the eyes have been discussed
in the opening pages of the preceding chapter; here we have to do
with their internal structure.*

The eyes of spiders are o
the type known as the several
layered ocellus, each eye con-
sisting of two or more layers
of cells behind a single lens
(Fig. 167). The lens (Fig.
167, c) is termed the cornea;
the outer of the two more
prominent layers (Fig. 167,
c. by), the corneal bypodermis;
and the inner of these two
layers (Fig. 167, r), the retina.
The eye is enclosed in a
sheath (Fig. 167, ec), the eye-
capsule; in some eyes there
is a layer of reflecting cells

c.hy

o.n.

e.c.

Fig. 167.
DIAGRAM OF A POSTBACILLAR EYE
c, cornea chy, corneal hypodermis r, retina
ec, eye-capsule on, optic nerve (after W'idman)

behind the retina, the tapetum; and in some eyes there are
pigment cells, which vary in position in different eyes.

The cornea. — The cornea or lens of the eye (Fig. 167, c), is
merely a modified portion of the cuticula of the body-wall, with
which it is continuous. It is a lens-shaped thickening of the
cuticula, which is free from hairs and, consequently, is not
traversed by trichopores, and in which the primary cuticula is
devoid of pigment, permitting the passage of light to the nervous
portion of the eye.

'Much has been published regarding the eyes of spiders. The works that I have consulted
most in the preparation ot the account given here are the following: Grenacher '70; Graber '8o;
Schimkewitsch '84; Bcrtkau '86; W'idman '07; and one. as yet. unpublished paper, l>v Mr (leorge
D. Shafer.

l6l

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

nu.

The cornea is moulted and renewed in the same manner as
other portions of the cuticula of the body-wall, and at the same
time.

The corneal hypodermis. — Immediately beneath the cornea
is a layer of cells (Fig. 167, c. hy) which is continuous with the
hypodermis of the body-wall, and which is merely a more or less
modified portion of the hypodermis.

Several different names have been applied to this part. It
has been termed the vitreous layer, or the vitreum, a term suggested

by its analogy with the vitreous hu-
mour of the eye of vertebrates; the
lentigen, because it produces the lens;
and the corneal hypodermis, a self-
explanatory term. I prefer the last
name notwithstanding its greater length.
The retina. — Lying immediately be-
hind the corneal hypodermis, is a layer
composed of highly specialized visual
cells; this is the retina (Fig. 167, r).

Each visual cell consists of several
parts; there can be distinguished a cell-
body, in which there is a nucleus
(Fig. 168, nu); the cell-body is con-
nected with the central nervous system
by means of a nerve-fibre (Fig. 168, nf);
and there is also a hard structure, which is known as the
optic rod (Fig. 168, rd).

The optic rod is the distinctively characteristic feature of
a visual cell. The form of this part varies in different eyes,
and, sometimes in different parts of the same eye; it is commonly
double, occupying two faces of one end of the cell with a thin
layer of the cell-body extending between the two elements, but
sometimes the two parts are united.

As the optic rods of adjacent visual cells are placed side
by side, there is a well-marked layer of the retina occupied by the
rods; but the position of this layer is not always the same. Two
types of eyes are recognized which are distinguished by the
position of the nuclei of the retina with reference to the position
of the layer of optic rods. In one type the nuclei lie in front of
the optic rods or bacilli, as the rods are often termed (Fig. 169);

162

/. 2.

Fig. 168. DIAGRAMS OF TWO

VISUAL CELLS

1, postbacillar 2, prebacillar

nu nucleus
nf, nerve fibre rd, optic rod

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

the eyes of this type are termed prcbacillar (pre-bac'il-lar) eyes.
In the other type the nuclei lie behind the optic rods; such eyes
are termed postbacillar eyes.

The anterior median eyes are postbacillar; all other eyes of
spiders are prebacillar.

In the prebacillar eyes (all eyes except the anterior median)
the nerve fibres join the visual cells at the end of the cell bearing
the rod (Fig. 169); while in the postbacillar eyes (anterior median)
the nerve fibres join the visual cells between the nucleus and the
rod (Fig. 167).

The two types of eyes differ in the method of their develop-
ment, but this is a phase of the subject into which we cannot
enter here; it is sufficient to state that on account of their peculiar

Fig. 160. DIAGRAMS OF A PREBACILLAR EYE

c, cornea chy, corneal hypodcrmis r, retina e c, eye-capsule o n, optic nerve

«', iris pigment (after Widman)

method of development the anterior median eyes are termed by
some writers the inverted eyes, while all the other eyes are termed
erect eyes.

The eye-capsule. — The eye-capsule is a sheath enclosing the
eye. It appears to be continuous with the sheath of the optic
nerve; it is sometimes termed the post-retinal membrane.

The tapetum. — In the eyes of many animals there is a struc-
ture that reflects back the light that has entered the eye causing
the well-known shining of the eyes in the dark. This is often
observed in the eyes of cats and in the eyes of moths that are
attracted to our lights at night. The part of the eye that causes

163

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

this reflection is termed a tapetum (ta-pe'tum). The supposed
function of a tapetum is to increase the effect of a faint light on
the visual organs, the light being caused to pass through the
retina a second time when it is reflected from the tapetum, which
is behind the retina.

The structure of the tapetum varies greatly in different
animals; in the cat and other carnivores it is a thick layer of wavy
fibrous tissue; in insects it is a mass of fine tracheae; in the Crus-
tacea it is formed of a light-coloured pigment in the accessory
pigment cells of the eye; and in spiders it consists of a layer of
cells behind the retina containing small crystals that reflect the
light.

The form of the tapetum layer varies in the eyes of different
spiders; three types have been described. In the first type it
lies immediately within the eye-capsule and encloses the whole
of the retina. As the inner end of the eye-bulb is more or less
compressed, the tapetum, as Mark has aptly described it in
Agelena, is a canoe-shaped structure, with a fissure along the keel,
through which the nerves pass to the retina. This type is termed
the funnel-form type.

The second-type of tapetum is also canoe-shaped, with a slit
at the bottom, and is also termed funnel-form; but it differs from
the first type in that the funnel is more shallow, enclosing for the
most part, only the proximal rod-bearing ends of the visual cells;
and it does not lie immediately within the eye-capsule, owing to
the fact that the nuclear ends of many of the visual cells are bent
back under the sides of the tapetum cup and consequently lie
between it and the eye-capsule. This form of a tapetum has been
figured by Widman, whose figures I copy. Figure 169 1, repre-
sents a section of a prebacillar eye of Amaurobius cut at right
angles to the longer axis of the tapetum; and (Fig. 169, 2,) repre-
sents a section lengthwise of the tapetum slit.

These two figures show a peculiar condition of the corneal
hypodermis which exists in some eyes of spiders. The nuclear
ends of the cells are crowded to one side; the result is that in one
section these cells are cut lengthwise; in the other, transversely.

The third type of tapetum is in the form of a shallow cup
whose sides are divided into many parallel strips by a series of
cross slits running out each way at right angles to the long slit
at the bottom of the cup; this type is termed the grate-form type.

164

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

pg.sl.~-

The nerve fibres enter the retina through the cross slits as well
as through the long one. Figure 170 is a diagram representing
one end of a grate-form tapetum, the figure is a composite one,
the upper half representing the tapetum, as observed by Shafer,
of Lycosa helluo, and the lower half, that of Pardosa lapidicina.

In this figure, /. si. represents the longitudinal slit and c.
si., the cross slits; both of these are filled with pigment excepting
the spaces occupied by the nerve fibres, sections of which are
represented as white spots. The white spaces, t., alternating with
the cross slits, represent the tapetum strips. Extending in from
the rim of the cup, which is
heavily pigmented, there is a
strip of pigment, pg. 3/., upon
each tapetum strip. In each
half of the figure, the rod end, r.,
of several visual cells is repre-
sented. These cells are sur-
rounded by pigment except where
they rest upon the tapetum.

The pigment cells. — Cells con-
taining a dark pigment occur in
various situations in and about
the eyes of spiders. These pig-
ment cells, limiting as they do the
transparent tracts that may be
followed by the light, doubtless
play an important part in the
operation of the eye.

A ring of hypodermal cells
about the rim of the eye and

immediately under the edge of the lens that contains pigment is
termed the iris (Fig. 169, i). The iris pigment occurs both in
the undifferentiated hypodermis and in the marginal cells of the
corneal hypodermis.

In eyes of the postbacillar type (the anterior median eyes)
there are interstitial pigment cells between the visual cells
(Fig. 167,). In some species the pigment cells extend to the
corneal hypodermis; in others they reach only the proximal end
of the optic rods.

In eyes of the prebacillar tvpe (all eyes except the anterior

[65

Fig. 170. DIAGRAM OF 0\TE END

OF A GRATE-FORM TAPETUM

(after Shafer)

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

median) differing conditions occur in different species. In eyes
with a funnel-form tapetum there is no pigment in front of the
tapetum; but in the second type of funnel-form tapetum-eyes
described above, there may be interstitial pigment-cells between
the nuclear ends of those visual cells that bend around behind
the tapetum. And in both the first and the second types of
funnel-form tapetum-eyes there are pigment cells between the
nerve fibres behind the tapetum.

In the grate-form tapetum-eyes, not only are there pigment
cells between the nerve fibres behind the tapetum, but they
extend above the tapetum as well, surrounding the optic rods.

In the prebacillar eyes of many spiders there is found a
pigmented layer similar to the funnel-form tapetum in form and
position and, doubtless, homologous with it. This layer has
been termed, unhappily, a "pigmented tapetum." But as it can-
not reflect light, owing to its being pigmented, it cannot properly
be called a tapetum.

Finally, in some cases, a prebacillar eye is divided by a thick
sheet of pigment into two portions, a larger median and a smaller
lateral. In these divided eyes the visual cells differ in form in
the two parts of the retina; and the form of the tapetum may differ
in the two parts.

Nocturnal eyes and diurnal eyes. — In the case of many spiders
that live in the dark or that frequent shady places some of the
eyes are pearly white. It is believed that such eyes are fitted
for seeing in a faint light; they have been termed, therefore,
nocturnal eyes. On the other hand, those eyes that are dark in
colour are termed diurnal eyes. Considerable use is made of this
distinction in the classification of spiders. It is of interest,
therefore, to determine whether the pearly white eyes are fitted
for nocturnal vision or not; and if so, to determine in what
respect they differ from the so-called diurnal eyes.*

Strictly speaking, any eye furnished with a tapetum, that is
with a reflecting structure so placed behind the retina that the
light entering the eye is made to traverse the retina a second time,
must be considered a nocturnal eye.

It does not follow, however, that every eye provided with a

•At my suggestion, the working out of this problem was undertaken by Mr. George D. Shafer
in the entomological laboratory of Cornell University. The morphological data given below as well
as some of that given above are drawn from a thesis by Mr. Shafer, which, at the present writing,
is unpublished.

1 66

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

tapetum can be recognized as a nocturnal eye by its colour when
viewed externally. In order that the eye may give forth the
pearly lustre it must be comparatively free from pigment between
the tapetum and the cornea; for if this is not the case, the re-
flected light will be absorbed to such an extent that the eye will
not glisten.

As no postbacillar eyes (anterior median) have been found
in which there is a tapetum, it is probable that these eyes are
never nocturnal. It should be noted, however, that in a few
cases, as in Meta for example, the anterior median eyes have the
pearly white lustre. A careful study of these eyes shows that
there is no tapetum present, the retina immediately behind the
optic rods being densely packed with interstitial pigment cells.
The pearly lustre is due, therefore, to some other cause than the
presence of a tapetum, and these eyes are only apparently noc-
turnal.

The pearly white prebacillar eyes of several genera (Pholcus,
Theridion, Agelena, Clubiona, Tracbelas, Meta, and Amaurobius)
were studied by Mr. Shafer. It was found that in each there is
a funnel-form tapetum, and that there is no pigment between the
tapetum and the cornea. These eyes are, therefore, truly noc-
turnal; and the pearly lustre is doubtless due to the presence of
the tapetum.

In the prebacillar eyes of Pardosa, Lycosa, and Misumena,
for example, a grate-form tapetum was found. These eyes
are, therefore, strictly speaking, nocturnal. But as in the
grate-form tapetum-eyes the pigment cells extend in front
of the retina, surrounding the optic rods, but little light can
be reflected out of the eye. On this account these eyes are
apparently diurnal.

To sum up the results it can be said that certain diurnal
eyes (the anterior median eyes of Meta, for example) are appar-
rently nocturnal; and that many nocturnal eyes (those having a
grate-form tapetum) are apparently diurnal. In other words
the presence or absence of a pearl}- lustre is not sufficient to
determine whether an eye is nocturnal or diurnal.

The eye-muscle. — Fach anterior median eye is provided with
a muscle extending from the body-wall to the eye-capsule. No
eye-muscles have been observed connected with any of the pre-
bacillar eyes in true spiders.

167

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

d. THE LYRIFORM ORGANS

There are found in several of the orders of the Arachnida organs
of a peculiar type, the function of which has not been determined,
but which have been supposed to be organs of hearing. They
occur in spiders, in the Phalangida, the Pedipalpida, and in the
Pseudoscorpionida, and are known as the lyriform organs,

These organs vary greatly in form but agree in their essential
features. The distinctly characteristic external feature is a
slit in the cuticula in which there is a wider, oval, central portion,
and, on each side of this, a long, narrow portion, which may or
may not taper to a point. At the bottom of this slit there is a

thin layer of the cuticula, so that
the slit does not reach the body-

, _ V*** cavity. These slits occur in the

sternum and in the cuticula of most

y~* of the segments of the legs, except

fhVr: the tarsi, and of the mouth-parts.

aJUiIjW They are extremely small; but are

very constant in their form and in

their position.

In the sternum the slits may
occur singly or in groups. But the
more characteristic form of these
organs, and the one that suggested
the name lyriform, is found on the
appendages, where they usually occur
near the distal end of a segment; but
Fig. 171. lyriform organs sometimes they are found near the

middle of a segment. In this type
there are several slits grouped side by side; and the cuticula sur-
rounding the group of slits, as well as that of the spaces between
them is greatly thickened (Fig. 171). The spaces between the
slits suggest the cords, and the outer rim of the organ, the frame
of a lyre, hence the name lyriform. In Fig. 171, a represents
the lyriform organ in the metatarsus of the fourth leg of Argy-
rodcs irigonus; and b that found in the same position in Theridion
frondeum.

As to the internal structure of the lyriform organs, it has
been found that there is beneath each slit a nerve-end-cell. This

168

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

cell is elongate, with a nucleus at its proximal end, near its con-
nection with a nerve, and with the distal end long and slender,
and extending to the thin layer of cuticula limiting the slit within.
According to Bertkau ('78), who discovered these organs, the
nerve-end-cell terminates in a small chitinous rod which rests
against the thin layer of cuticula; but this rod is not described
by later writers, and is not now believed to exist.

The observations of Bertkau led to the belief that the lyri-
form organs are auditory in function. But the failure of other
observers to discover scolopalae or auditory pins in the nerve-
end-cells connected with them has made this conclusion doubtful.
A detailed description of the lyriform organs has been pub-
lished by Mr. N. E. Mclndoo since the preceding account was
put in type. (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 191 1, pp. 375—418).
The results of Mr. Mclndoo's experiments indicate that the
lyriform organs are olfactory in function.

e. THE ORGANS OF TOUCH

The organs of touch of spiders are distributed generally
over the surface of the body. They are hollow hairs or setae
each furnished with a nerve. The structure of such hairs has
been described on page 140, and is illustrated by Fig. 146.

It is probable that the nerves of the hairs are connected with
a subhypodermal nerve-plexus as is well-known to be the case
with insects. Traces of such a nerve-plexus have been observed
by Bernard ('96) in the Solpugida.

/. THE ORGANS OF TASTE AND OF SMELL

Very little has been written regarding the organs of taste
and of smell of spiders; and it is still a question whether organs
of either of these senses exist among spiders or are wanting. It
may be, as indicated above, that the lyriform organs are olfactory.

THE GLANDS OF SPIDERS

With the exception of the poison glands and the silk glands,
the glands of spiders have received comparatively little attention.
The moulting of spiders has been described in great detail by
Wagner ('88); and reference is made by him to the moulting fluid

169

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

which facilitates the shedding of the old cuticula; but I find no
reference to the moulting fluid glands. Doubtless there are in
spiders, as there are in insects, modified hypodermal cells that
produce the moulting fluid.

Several glands have been described connected with the diges-
tive organs that may function as salivary glands. These occur
in the endites and in the rostrum. But the most prominent of
the glands connected with the mouth-parts are those that open
through the chelicerae and produce the venom.

Glands which open in the coxal segment of the third pair of
legs in tarantulas and in some true spiders have been observed;
these are termed coxal glands.

a. THE POISON GLANDS

The poison-glands are two in number and are situated in the
true spiders in the anterior part of the cephalothorax (Fig. 143).
Each gland discharges its product through a long slender duct
which opens near the tip of the claw of the chelicera of the cor-
responding side of the body. In the tarantulas each poison gland
is situated in the basal segment of a chelicera.

The glands are sac-like in form; the lumen of the sac serves
as a reservoir of venom; the wall is composed of excreting cells,
supported by a layer of connective tissue, and there is a layer
of muscle fibres surrounding the sac. The fibres of the muscle
layer are arranged in a spiral manner.

b. THE SILK-GLANDS

The term silk is ordinarily used to designate the thread spun
by the silkworm, Bombyx mori, from which nearly all of our
silken fabrics are made; but by entomologists the term is also
applied to other similar products. In this sense, silk is produced
by various animals and is used by them for many different pur-
poses,

Among insects there is considerable variation in the structure
and position of the silk organs; thus while with caterpillars
the silk is produced by modified salivary glands, and is spun from
a spinneret situated near the mouth; with ant-lions it is produced
by modified Malpighian tubes and is spun from the caudal end
of the alimentary canal. It is obvious, therefore, that silk-pro-

170

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

ducing organs have arisen independently in different races of
animals.

The silk organs of spiders are the most complicated silk
organs known. This condition might be expected from the fact
that a single species of spider spins several distinct kinds of silk;
thus, for example, an orb-weaving spider spins five different
kinds of silk.

A detailed account of the different kinds of silk spun by
spiders is given in the following chapter; and in the preceding
chapter the external spinning organs are described. In this we
have to consider the internal silk organs, the glands that produce
the silk.

As spiders spin several kinds of silk it is obvious that there
are several kinds of silk glands differing in function. Seven
different kinds of silk glands have
been recognized. These differ in
form, in number, in colour, in the
structure of their ducts, and in
the nature of their products.

No spider has been found to
possess all of the seven kinds of
silk glands; but three of the kinds
have been found in all species
studied from this point of view;
and a fourth is wanting in only
two families. The three other kinds are each characteristic of
a particular group of spiders, and no two of them are found to-
gether. Each of the three groups of spiders that possesses a
characteristic kind possesses also the first four kinds. Hence
the presence of five kinds in a single spider is common.

Much has been written on this subject; but the paper that
has been of the most service in the preparation of this account is
one by Apstein ('89). I have followed Apstein quite closely
in my account of the structure of the glands; but in several cases
my own observations do not confirm his conclusions regarding
their function.

The different kinds of silk are spun from different types of
spinning tubes (Fig. 172), which are described on page 135.

The aciniform or berry-shaped glands. — There are four clusters
of these glands, one for each of the hind and middle spinnerets

SPINNING TUBES

171

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

(Fig. 143). They have been found in all species studied. In Aranea
there are about one hundred in each cluster or four hundred
in all; but in some spiders there are only a few of them. They
open through the first type of spinning tube, those with a long,
more or less curved base, and a slender straight tip (Fig. 172, a).
The name applied to these glands was suggested by the
botanical term acinus, which is applied to one of the kernels of a
fruit like a raspberry. A single gland resembles an acinus in
form; each of the four clusters of these glands resembles a berry.
The aciniform glands are nearly spherical and consist of an
epithelium invested by a peritoneal membrane (Fig. 173). The
epithelium is not continued into the duct. All parts of the
gland give the same reaction to stains.

I have determined by direct observation that the swathing
band is formed of silk from these glands. This fact is easily
determined by feeding a spider confined
in a glass tube.

Thepyriformor pear-shaped glands. —
There are two clusters of these glands,
one for each of the fore spinnerets
(Fig. 143). They have been found in
all species studied. In Aranea there are
Fig. '173. about one hundred in each cluster, or Fig. 174.
an two hundred in all, but some spiders A

ACINIFORM . , , , ., T, PYRIFORM

gland nave ornv a 'ew °' them. 1 hey open gland
through spinning tubes of the second
type (Fig. 172, b), in which the basal part is short, the tip
twice as long as the base and curved.

These glands are elongate and consist of an epithelium in-
vested by a peritoneal membrane (Fig. 174). The epithelium is
not continued into the duct. The part of the gland next its mouth
gives a darker colour reaction to stains. Owing to this these
glands are easily distinguished in stained preparations.

The function of the pyriform glands is the formation of the
attachment disks. The making of these disks by a spider con-
fined in a vial can be easily observed.

The ampullate or bellied glands. — These are referred to by
certain writers as the cylindrical glands; but this name has been
applied to the type of glands described next. There are usually
four ampullate glands; but frequently there are six or eight, and

172

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

in some spiders there are as many as twelve. They are large,
long glands, more or less cylindrical in outline (Fig. 143, and Fig.
175). The glands consist of an epithelium invested by a peri-
toneal membrane. The epithelium is continued into the duct,
which also has a chitinous intima.
Each gland opens through a spigot
(Fig. 172 c). In the usual condi-
tion, when there are four of these
glands, the spigots are located one
on the inner side of each of the
fore and middle spinnerets. The
ampullate glands occur in all species
examined. They are termed am-
pullate because each is furnished with an ampulla or
sac-like dilation.

The drag-line and the dry threads of webs are
made of silk from the ampullate glands. The fact
that the drag-line is composed of only two or four
strands and that it comes from these glands was dis-
covered by Warburton ('90).

The source of the elastic element of the viscid
thread of the orb-weaving spiders has not been
determined. It appears to come from the centre of
the group of spinnerets; as it consists of two strands
of considerable size, it is evidently spun from two
spigots. As the drag-line of orb-weavers usually
consists of two strands, I infer that in these spiders
two of the ampullate glands have been so modified
that they produce elastic silk. Wilder ('66) demon-
strated that the yellow silk of Nephila, which is the Fig I7S-
viscid silk, is spun from the fore spinnerets. an

/ he cylindrical glands. — I hese glands are com- gland
monly present in female spiders; but are wanting in
the Dysderidae and in the Attidae. There are usually six of
them; but sometimes there are many. In males there is a
smaller, number or they are wanting. In the usual case, where
there are six cylindrical glands, one opens on the outside of
each middle spinneret, and two open on the inside of each hind
spinneret. Each opens by a spigot similar to the spigots of the
ampullate glands, but with a wider opening (Fig. 172, d).

173

The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

These glands He directly on the ventral side of the body cavity;
they are long, cylindrical, of uniform diameter, and convoluted
(Fig. 176). They resemble in structure the ampullate glands.

The function of these glands is the production of the silk
of which the egg-sac is made. Spiders of the two families in
which they are wanting do not spin true egg-sacs. This is the
only case of a sexual difference in the silk glands of spiders.

The aggregate or treeform glands. — These are found only in
the orb-weaving spiders and in the Linyphiidae and Theridiidae.
They are a symmetrical in form, being irregularly branched and
lobed. (Fig. 177.) The duct bears on its middle part many knobs
which are filled with cells. There are six of these glands, four large
and two small. Three open near together on the inner surface of
each hind spinneret, through spigots the tip of which is pointed
(Fig. 1 72 e). The term aggregate was suggested by the lobed form
of the glands, which gives them a compound appearance.

It is believed that the function of these glands is to secrete
the viscid drops of the viscid and elastic thread. As these glands
are found in the Theridiidae, as well as in the orb-weavers, it is
important to determine whether viscid threads occur in the
webs of these spiders. It is certain that they are uncommon or
at least are inconspicuous, but they have been observed in the
webs of Linyphia, Steatoda, and Theridion.

The lobed glands. — These occur only in the Theridiidae and are
either two or four in number. They open on the hind spinnerets
through spigots without a tip (Fig. 178). The lobed glands are very
irregular in form, consisting of a mass of irregular lobes (Fig. 179).

The silk of which the swathing film of the Theridiidae is made
is secreted by the lobed glands. Correlated with their presence
is the development of only a small number of aciniform glands.

The cribellum glands. — These are found only in those fami-
lies in which a cribellum and calamistrum are present. They
open on the cribellum through exceedingly small pores (Fig. 141,
p. 135). The glands are exceedingly numerous; they are spherical
and are often grouped; that is several many be enclosed in a
common sheath of peritoneal membrane.

It is probable that the function of the cribellum glands is
to secrete the woof of the hackled band.

Figure 180 represents the relative position of the silk glands
in a spider.

174

Fig. 176.
A CYLINDRICAL GLAND

Fig. 1 r<>.
A LOBED GLAND

Fig. 177.
AN AGGREGATE GLAND

Fig. 178.

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The Internal Anatomy of Spiders

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I76

CHAPTER IV: THE LIFE OF SPIDERS

The careful observer of the ways of spiders soon learns that
the members of the different families differ greatly in their modes
of life; and that even within the limits of a single family striking
variations exist. In fact each species, while agreeing with closely
allied forms in the more general features of its life history, ex-
hibits specific pecularities.

There is given in later pages of this book, so far as the limits
•of space will permit, what is known regarding the characteristic
habits of each of the families of North American spiders, and
of some of the more common species in each. But in order to
avoid repetition those features that are common to all or to many
species are discussed here.

i. — METHODS OF STUDY

The study of the life of spiders is essentially a field study
a few species live in our dwellings, and some others can be kept
in confinement, but the great majority of them can be best
observed in the open air; and so abundant are these creatures
that one need never lack materials for study during the warmer
parts of the year.

Spiders live in a great variety of situations. A few species
seem to prefer the angles of buildings; many are usuallv found
among shrubbery; some stretch their webs high in trees- others
build among the low herbage of meadows and pastures; the mem-
bers of several families run over the surface of the ground or lurk
beneath stones; and certain kinds dig burrows in the earth The
student should therefore pursue his studies in as great a variety
of situations as possible.

A collecting outfit.— For the collection and preservation of
spiders only a small equipment of apparatus is necessarv A
collecting outfit should include bottles of alcohol for the preserva-
tion of specimens, empty bottles for bringing home specimens
alive, a pocket lens, a piece of black cloth, preferably velvet, to

•77

The Life of Spiders

place behind webs when studying them, and, most important of
all, material for taking notes.

Methods of collecting. — The most instructive method of
collecting spiders is by carefully seeking for them and observing
their habits before taking specimens; this is especially true
of the web-building species. Many other species are to be
found by overturning stones and other objects lying on the
ground and by tearing off the bark from dead trees, logs, and
stumps.

But if it is desired to make as complete a collection as pos-
sible of the species of a locality, other methods must also be used.
Of these those known as sweeping and as sifting are the more
important. In sweeping, an insect net is used and the foliage
of shrubs and trees is beaten, and herbage is swept, as in the
well-known method of collecting insects. In sifting, dead leaves
are collected from the ground and shaken in a large sieve over a
sheet of paper.

The apparatus devised by Professor Berlese of Florence,
and described by Dr. L. O. Howard in Entomological News for
February, 1906, is very useful for collecting the small spiders that
live among dead leaves and other rubbish. This apparatus
consists of a metal cylinder in which the rubbish is placed and to
which heat is applied causing the spiders and other animals in
it to move down into a receptacle placed to catch them

The preservation of specimens. — Owing to the softness of
the body, spiders cannot be well preserved dry. The preserva-
tive fluid that is usually employed is alcohol; it should not be
diluted, but used of the full strength of commercial alcohol. Care
should be taken not to put too many specimens in a bottle, and
if the specimens are large the alcohol should be changed after one
or two days, as the alcohol first used will be diluted by the fluid
of the body.

If specimens are to be preserved permanently, the bottles
should be provided with rubber stoppers, as the alcohol is liable
to evaporate from bottles closed with cork. In some of the larger
collections the specimens are put in small corked bottles and these
bottles are stored in larger bottles or fruit jars filled with alcohol
and tightly closed.

The egg-sacs and many kinds of nests of spiders can be
mounted and preserved dry; but in most cases it is impracticable

178

The Life of Spiders

to preserve specimens of the webs; here photographs must take
the place of the actual specimens.

1 1 is possible, however, to make beautiful mounts of the central
and more characteristic portion of orb-webs. This is done by
mounting the web between two plates of glass. Take two pieces
of glass of the same size; prepare one of these by fastening a
narrow strip of adhesive paper along the edges of one face; then
carefully press the other piece of glass against the web to be pre-
served; the viscid silk will cause the web to adhere to the glass,
and if the operation be carefully performed the relation of the
different lines will be preserved; the lines that extend beyond the
edge of the glass should then be wiped away, using care not to
disturb the position of the lines upon the glass; then cover the
web with the other piece of glass which will be held a short distance
away from the web by the strip of paper on its edge; the two pieces
of glass are then fastened together by pasting a strip of gummed
paper over the edges of them. The kind used in mounting lantern
slides is the most available form of adhesive paper for this purpose.

The laboratory equipment — -The laboratory should be
furnished with a dissecting microscope, which is the most con-
venient type of microscope for use in the study of the classi-
fication of spiders, and with a compound microscope. 1 use
also, with great satisfaction, the Pfeiffer dissecting microscope
which gives an erect image and which is made to fit upon the stand
of an ordinary dissecting microscope. For anatomical work
the stereoscopic microscope, made by Zeiss, is very useful. There
is also needed a supply of watch glasses, forceps, dissecting needles,
a measuring rule, and a glass tube fitted with a rubber bulb, like
a pen filler, tor picking up and transferring minute specimens in
alcohol.

Some method of storing the specimens in systematic order,
so that allied forms shall be kept together and so that any desired
specimen can be easily found, should be adopted. 1 use bent
neck vials, stoppered with rubber, mounted on blocks, and stored
in systematic sequence in the same kind of drawers as we use for
the storing of insects. In some collections the bottles are stored
in drawers fitted with series of holes for the reception of the
bottles; and in other collections the small bottles are stored in
larger ones, as already described, and these are arranged on the
shelves of a cabinet.

179

The Life of Spiders

On photographing spiders. — It is exceedingly difficult to
induce living spiders to pose for their photographs. Sometimes,
in the case of large species, where it is not necessary to approach
the camera too closely to the spider, a good photograph can be
obtained of one in its natural attitude, and I have taken photo-
graphs of running spiders by enclosing them in a plate glass box
and photographing through one side of the box. As a rule, how-
ever, it is necessary to kill a spider before a satisfactory photo-
graph can be made of it.

The specimen should be killed in a cyanide bottle, and then
either posed dry on a piece of cardboard or placed in a porcelain
dish of alcohol and photographed with a vertical camera. This
must be done promptly while the legs and palpi are flexible and
before they become curled up. Sometimes, in the case of brightly
marked species, better results are obtained if a colour screen
is used.

On photographing spider wehs. — If one wishes to take photo-
graphs of spider webs, special preparations should be made for
it. Photographs of webs taken in the field are seldom satis-
factory. Only rarely can a web be found in a suitable position
as regards lighting and background, and in a satisfactory state
of preservation.

When possible, the spider whose web it is desired to photo-
graph, should be induced to build a web where it cannot be in-
jured by wind or insects and where the nature of the lighting and
of the background can be controlled. Many of the pictures in
this volume are from photographs of "made to order" webs.

These webs were made in the glass house of our insectary,
which resembles an ordinary greenhouse. Any room suitable
for photographic work would serve for this purpose.

The most easily obtained webs were those of spiders that
build upon shrubs or trees. Having found such a web in the
field, the branch upon which it was built was carefully cut and
carried, with the spider and web upon it, into the insectary and
firmly fixed into the earth in a large flower pot. This permitted
the moving of the branch without disturbing the web, when it
was desired to pose it for a photograph.

If the spider was not unduly disturbed it remained on its web
in the new situation, and in most cases repaired the web during
the first or second night following. Usually the outer framework

1 80

The Life of Spiders

was left but the central and more characteristic portions of the
web were entirely rebuilt. This new web being protected from
wind and from insects often remained in a perfect condition for
a considerable time, giving ample opportunity for the study and
the photographing of it.

Owing to the extreme delicacy of the threads of which a web
is made very careful lighting of it is necessary. By simply moving
the flower pot containing the branch, the web can be put in the
most favourable position.

As to the background, good results were obtained by hanging
a piece of black velvet behind the web; this substance reflects
very little light and makes a good contrast with the light lines of
the web. But the most perfect results were obtained by the use

O-o^O— °— o

Fig. 181. VISCID SILK OF ARANEA

of a dark hole for a background. This was obtained by using
an open box about five feet deep, three feet wide, and three feet
long. This was lined with black velvet and placed upon its side.
The web to be photographed was then placed before the opening
of the box. The bottom of the box, which served as the back-
ground, being in the shadow of the sides reflected almost no light.

Frequently the getting of a photograph of a web was not so
simple as in the case of those built on shrubs and trees; sonic of
the special devices used for this purpose are described in the
accounts of the webs given later.

On photographing threads, of silk. — After making many
unsuccessful attempts to make photomicrographs of silk, I
devised a very simple method. Two small pins are inserted in

l8l

The Life of Spiders

the end of a narrow strip of cork; these pins are about one third
inch apart; by pressing these pins against a thread which it is
desired to photograph a section of the thread is obtained stretched
between the pins; thus mounted, the thread can be kept from
injury by contact with any object; the piece of cork bearing the
pins and silk is placed on the stage of a microscope so that the
silk is in front of the objective. It is now easy to study the silk;
and by combining the microscope with a camera in the ordinary
way, to make a photomicrograph of it. Figure 181 was made
from a photograph obtained in this way.

II.— THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPIDERS

The egg-sac— The eggs of spiders are laid in a mass and are
usually protected to a greater or less extent by a covering of silk,
the egg-sac or cocoon; but sometimes they are merely agglutinated
and are without a silken covering; this is the case in some of the
Pholcidae.

Sometimes the egg-sac is so thin that it does not conceal the
eggs, being merely a loose web of threads; in other cases it is very
elaborate in structure. Several types of egg-sacs are discussed
later in the discussion of the motherhood of spiders.

The life within the egg-sac. — As a rule the eggs hatch in a
comparatively short time after they are laid. The egg-shell is
broken, in the case of certain spiders at least, by a tooth on the
base of the pedipalps. Although the eggs hatch soon after they
are laid, the spiderlings may remain within the egg-sac for a long
time. Very many of the spiders living in the North pass the long
winter as spiderlings within the egg-sac. With these the eggs
are laid in the autumn, the spiderlings soon hatch, but remain
in the egg-sac till the following spring. Thus it may happen
that a spider whose entire life is one year in duration spends nearly
or quite one half of this period within the egg-sac. On the other
hand, the young of many species leave the egg-sac soon after
hatching.

According to the observations of Dr. B. G. Wilder ('73a)
some of the young of Miranda aurantia feed upon their weaker
brothers and sisters; so that from an egg-sac that in early winter
contains a large number of spiderlings there emerge in the spring
a much smaller number of partly grown spiders. How general

182

The Life of Spiders

this habit of cannibalism is has not been determined. McCook
states that the young of the orb-weavers prey upon each other
after they leave the egg-sac.

The moulting of the cuticula. — Spiders, like insects, shed, from
time to time, an outer layer of the cuticula of the body. This
process is termed moulting and the cast skin is called the exuviae.
The number of the moults and the intervals between them varies
with different species, and has been determined in only a few cases.
Blackwall states that Epeira catophylla moults five times and
Tegenaria civtlis, nine times. Wagner found that the young of
Trochosa singoriensis moulted four times before beginning to lead
.in independent life.

The cuticula of the cephalothorax and of its appendages,
the legs and mouth-parts, is
firm and inelastic, being
hardened by a horny sub-
stance known as chitin. Ow-
ing to this it will not stretch
enough to allow for the growth
of the spider. The result is,
that from time to time, the

. . . ,. Fig. 182. TARSUS OF A MOULTING SPIDER

cuticula becomes too small dolomedes scrtpti

for the spider and must be

shed. But before this is done a new cuticula is formed beneath
the old one; then the old skin bursts open, and the spider
casting it off is clothed in a soft skin, which stretches to accom-
modate the increased size of the body. Very soon, however,
this new skin becomes hardened with chitin, and after a time it
in turn must be shed.

Before the old cuticula is shed it is loosened by a fluid, the
moulting fluid, which is excreted from glands that open through
the new cuticula. Figure 182 represents the tarsus of a moulting
spider; here the old skin can be seen separated from the new ;
this is especially clear in the region of the claws, there being
apparently two pairs of claws; but the outer pair is merely the
loosened cuticula of the claws.

After the old cuticula is loosened, it splits along the sides
of the body and in front of the eyes; the slit being just above the
base of the legs and mouth-parts and extending back on each
side upon the abdomen. I hat portion of the old cuticula that

183

The Life of Spiders

had covered the dorsal aspect of the cephalothorax is lifted off
like a lid and remains attached to the abdominal portion (Fig.
182 bis). Through the opening thus made the body is worked out,

and the appendages
one after the other are
pulled from their old
coverings.

In addition to the
mechanical reason for
the moult, the allow-
ing of the increase in
size of the body, there
are doubtless physi-
ological reasons for it
also. In spiders the old
cuticula of the abdomen
is about as elastic as the
new one, still the moult
includes this part of the
body as well as the fir-
mer portions. At each
moult the spider is
clothed with a complete coat of new hairs. When the function
of the hairs as sense organs is considered, it is seen that their
renewal at intervals is very important. Other physiological
reasons for the moult have been suggested, but as yet they are
not well understood.

Transformations. — In the course of their development,
spiders undergo comparatively slight changes in form. Their
development is comparable to that of those insects that undergo
an incomplete metamorphosis. They increase in size, and the
proportions of the different parts of the body undergo a greater
or less change; but there is no marked change in form as there
is with those insects that undergo a complete metamorphosis.

The most marked change takes place at the last .moult, when
the development of the sexual organs is completed. Previous
to this moult, the tarsus of the pedipalp of the male is merely a
club-like segment in appearance; but when the cuticula is shed
for the last time, the exceedingly complicated organ already
described is disclosed. So also in the case of the female of those

Fig. 182 bis. MOULTED SKIN OF A SPIDER,
DOLOMEDES URINATOR, MALE

184

The Life of Spiders

species that have an epigynum, this organ is not exposed till the

last moult takes place. At this time too, the abdomen of the

female may undergo a marked change in form, due to the growth

of the eggs within it. The

males of the hackled-thread

weavers lose the cribellum and

calamistrum at the last moult

or have these organs greatly

reduced.

The reproduction of lost
organs. — The reproducing of
legs that have been lost by
immature spiders is frequently
observed. If a leg be lost by
a young spider the wound soon
heals, and at the succeeding
moult the bud of a new leg
appears. This bud increases in
size at each succeeding moult;
and in time, if the process
begins early enough in the life
of the spider, a functional leg
is obtained. Figure 183 repre-
sents a spider in which two legs, the left fore leg and the
right hind leg, were being reproduced; this is a mechanical
reproduction of a photograph of a spider in our collection.

Fig. 183.
A SPIDER REPRODUCING LOST LEGS

III.— THE FOOD OF SPIDERS

All spiders are carnivorous. Their prey consists chiefly of
insects; but they will feed on other spiders that they can overcome,
even on weaker members of their own species. This cannibalism
is not confined to that of young spiders described in the preceding
section, but is also true of adults. It is a common occurrence for
the female to destroy the male of its own species, which is smaller
and weaker.

Besides insects and spiders other small animals are occasion-
ally destroyed by these voracious creatures. The most striking
instance of this is the destruction of small birds by a large South
American tarantula, the bird-spider {Avicularia avicularia).

185

The Life of Spiders

The habits of this spider were first described by Madam
Merian (1647—1 717)- Most writers have doubted the truth of
her statement; but it has been confirmed by Bates ("A Naturalist
on the Amazon," p. 80). Although Simon is among those that
doubt Madam Merian's account, he states that the Avicularia
that he caught in Venezuela ran on the trunks of trees with as-
tonishing rapidity (Simon '92, p. 170). And as the so-called bird-
spider is very large, the body measuring two inches in length
and the legs expanding seven inches, it is certainly large enough
and strong enough to overcome some of the smaller birds. In
fact several apparently well-authenticated instances of the de-
struction of small vertebrate animals, including birds, a mouse,
a fish, and a snake, by spiders that were much smaller than the
Avicularia are given by McCook ('89. I. 235). But of course
all such occurrences are very exceptional.

The mouth of a spider is fitted only for the taking of liquid
food. This it presses from its victim by means of its chelicerae
and the endites of its pedipalps. Observations on spiders in
confinement indicate that some of them at least require water
frequently; but it is evident that others obtain moisture only by
sucking the liquids of their victim.

Although spiders are extremely voracious, they are capable
of enduring long fasts. Blackwall states that a female Tberidion
quadripunctatus was known to exist for eighteen months without
nutriment in a vial closely corked.

IV.— MEANS BY WHICH SPIDERS OBTAIN THEIR

PREY

Great differences exist among spiders as regards the ways in
which they obtain their prey; some, the wandering spiders, stalk
their prey; others lie in ambush for it; many trap it by means of
snares; and a few live as commensals.

The wandering spiders. — Among the more familiar examples
of wandering spiders are the wolf-spiders (Lycosidse), the jumping
spiders (Attidae), and most of the crab-spiders, (Thomisidaj).
These run about in search of their prey and pounce upon it when
an opportunity offers.

The ambushing spiders, — Certain of the crab-spiders, as
some species of the genus Misumena, hide in flowers and capture

186

The Life of Spiders

insects that visit them, resembling in this respect the ambush-bugs;
and many of the mining spiders lie in ambush at the entrance
of their burrows, ar.d spring forth to seize insects that come near.

The net-building spiders. — The great majority of sedentary
spiders, as those that do not wander in search of prey are termed,
spin webs or snares for the trapping of insects, and wait either
upon or near the webs where they can easily rush upon an en-
tangled insect.

The commensal spiders. — Excellent examples of feeding at
the same table with other species, or commensalism as it is termed,
is exhibited by species of the genus Argyrodes. These small
spiders live in the snares of larger web-building species and feed
upon the smaller entrapped insects that are neglected by the owner
of the web.

Means of destroying the prey. — Spiders destroy their prey by
means of venom secreted by a pair of glands in the cephalothorax;
the ducts from these glands open, one on each side, through a
minute pore near the tip of the claw of the chelicera.

Most of the web-building species swathe their victims in a
sheet of silk. The act of swathing can be easily observed by
throwing a large insect into the web of a Miranda. 1 he spider
first rushes at the insect and pierces it with the claws of its cheli-
cerae, and then darts back into a position of safety; this may be
repeated several times; or, if the spider is not afraid of its victim,
the biting may be omitted. Then the spider approaches the
insect and pulling out a sheet of silk from its spinnerets with one
hind leg thrusts the sheet against the insect. In doing this the
spider uses first one hind leg and then the other. In the case of
a large Miranda this sheet of silk is sometimes an inch in length,
the body of the spider being held that far from the insect; under
these conditions the sheet can be seen to be composed of a very
large number of parallel threads, probably a thread from each
of the small spinning tubes of all the spinnerets enters into the
composition of the sheet. As soon as the sheet is fastened to
the insect the spider rolls the insect over and over and thus wraps
it in its shroud.

V.— THE SILK OF SPIDERS

The silk glands have been described in the chapter on internal
anatomy; and the spinning organs, in the one on external anatomy;

187

The Life of Spiders

we have now to consider the nature and uses of the different kinds
of silk.

The dragline. — Most spiders as they move from place to
place spin a thread, which marks their course; this thread has
been termed the dragline. Draglines are the most commonly
observed threads of spiders; it is by them that spiders drop from
an elevated position to a lower one; it is of them that the irregular
nets are largely composed; and the foundation of an orb-web is
made of draglines.

There is a commonly accepted error regarding the structure
of a dragline. As the number of spinning tubes is large in the
spiders most commonly studied, the orb-weavers, it has been

inferred that in spinning a line the
spider emits a delicate thread from
each, and that all of these, some-
times several hundred in number,
blend into one. This is not the case;
the dragline is composed of a small
number, usually only two, compara-
tively large threads. These, judging
by their size are evidently spun from
spigots.

The attachment disks. — If a spider
that is running along some object and

Fig. 184. . . ii- • j_ i_

an attachment disk spinning a dragline as it goes be

carefully observed, it will be seen to
fasten this line at frequent intervals to the object on which it
is. This is done by making what may be termed an attachment
disk; such a disk is pictured by Fig. 184; it is composed of
a large number of minute looped threads.

The method of making an attachment disk can be easily
observed by enclosing a living spider in a bottle, and watching
it with a lens as it fastens its dragline to the sides of the bottle.
This I have done many times; and in all of the cases that I have
observed, the spider applied the fore spinnerets to the surface
of the glass and by quickly spreading the organs apart and bring-
ing them together again two or three times made the disk. An
examination of the disk with a microscope shows that it is com-
posed of a large number of fine threads. It is evident therefore
that the silk of which it is made issues from the numerous small

188

The Life of Spiders

spinning tubes of this pair of spinnerets and is therefore the prod-
uct of the pyriform glands. The spiders that I have seen make
attachment disks were Aranea frondosa and a species of Amau-
robius.

The following interesting observation was reported to me by
Prof. Cyrus R. Crosby: — "The other day when attempting
to capture an Aranea trifolia she attached her thread but had
no time to change to the dragline and so spun a band of silk a foot
long before she was able to make a new attachment and start the
dragline."

The swathing band. — The band of silk with which the orb-
weaving spiders envelop their prey may be termed the swathing
band. The method of making this band is described on an earlier
page. I have watched the process many times, but owing to the
timidity of the spiders observed, I have never been able to deter-
mine to my complete satisfaction whether the silk comes from
all of the spinnerets or only from the hind and middle ones. It
is easily seen that the band is composed of a great number of fine
threads and it appears to come from all of the spinnerets. If
this is true, it is the product of both the pyriform and the acini-
form glands. I have observed the making of the swathing band
only by orb-weaving spiders; probably other spiders have similar
habits.

The swathing film. — Spiders of the family Theridiidae use
in swathing their prey a film of silk which differs from the swathing
band of the orb-weavers. This silk is emitted from two or four
spigots, one or two as the case may be, on each of the hind spin-
nerets. These spigots are the outlets of the lobed glands; which
have been found only in this family.

The viscid thread. — In the webs of orb-weaving spiders there
occurs a peculiar viscid thread; this is the spiral line forming
the larger part of the orb. If this line be touched, ever so lightly,
it will adhere to the object touching it, and when this object is
removed the line will stretch greatly. This is the trapping por-
tion of the web; the viscid nature of the silk causes it to adhere
to an insect touching it; and the elasticity of the thread prevents
the insect from breaking it at once and allows the insect to become
entangled in other turns of the spiral; in this way the prevention
of the escape of the insect is assured if the victim be not too
powerful.

189

The Life of Spiders

When highly magnified this viscid and elastic line is seen
to be composed of two elements (Fig. 181): first, the axis of the
thread consisting of two strands; and second, a series of globular
drops borne upon this axis; the axis is the elastic element of the
thread and the drops the viscid portion. In the webs of some of
our larger spiders, the viscid drops on the spiral line can be seen
with the unaided eye (Fig. 185).

It is evident that the elastic thread is spun from two spigots;
but as yet I have been unable to locate these spigots and con-
sequently have not traced the silk back to the glands producing
it. The viscid thread appears to come from the centre of the
group of spinnerets; this may indicate that one of its elements
is produced by the ampullate glands that open on the middle
spinnerets; if this is so it is probably the elastic portion that is
so produced. I can see no foundation for the belief of Apstein
('89, p. 40) that the central part of the viscid thread is produced
by the aciniform glands; these open through small spinning tubes
and produce fine threads like those of the swathing band.

The silk of which the viscid drops are composed is believed
to be secreted by the aggregate or treeform glands which open
through spigots on the hind spinnerets (Apstein '89, p. 39). This
silk is poured forth upon the elastic thread in a continuous sheet;
but it breaks up into drops almost immediately, a result of the
surface tension of the liquid. I have observed, when watching
a large Aranea gigas spin its viscid spiral, that the thread as it
was pulled from the spinnerets was smooth; but an instant later,
the viscid drops appeared on that part of this section that had
been put in place between two radii. It should be noted, however,
in this connection, that the smooth portion of the thread, the
section between the spinnerets and the radius to which it was
fastened last, is greatly stretched; and that as soon as it is fastened
to another radius, this tension is relaxed, which would result
in a massing of its outer coat, and thus facilitate the formation
of the drops.

The hackled hands. — By the term hackled hands may be des-
ignated the distinctively characteristic J: h reads spun by spiders
having a cribellum and a calamistrum. 1 suggest the term band
for these threads because they are flat and more or less ribbon-
like structures. This feature, however, is only apparent when they
are greatly magnified; to the unaided eye they appear as threads.

190

<
c
w

191

The Life of Spiders

The structure of the hackled bands differs in different fami-
lies; and sometimes, in different genera of the same family. But
in all that I have examined, the band consists of two elements:
first, two or more longitudinal strands, the supporting part of
the band, this may be termed the warp; and second, a viscid,
sheet-like portion, supported by the warp, this may be termed
the woof.

The warp in the hackled band of Uloborus and of Hyptiotes
(Fig. 236) consists of two, straight, parallel threads; in that of
Dictyna of a pair of greatly curled threads; and in the band of
Amaurobius (Fig. 250) of two straight threads and two greatly
curled ones. In Filistata there are a supporting double thread
and two pairs of curled threads differing greatly in size and
arrangement (Fig. 285).

In most cases the woof is an amorphous sheet; but in the
bands of Uloborus and of Hyptiotes it consists of a series of regular,
overlapping lobes.

Very little is known regarding the source of the two or
more kinds of silk that are used in forming a hackled band.
The size of the threads forming the warp indicates that they
are spun from spigots; and it seems probable that the woof is
derived from the cribellum; but I have been unable to verify
these conjectures.

The method of making a hackled band is also not well under-
stood. It is easy to see that the spider in doing it places the
calamistrum of one hind leg beneath the spinnerets and makes
a rapid combing motion. It is probable that the lobed nature
of the warp of Uloborus and of Hyptiotes is produced in this way;
but is the amorphous sheet that forms the woof of other genera
thus formed? If so, how are the curled threads of the warp
given their characteristic form?

The silk of the egg-sacs. — The silk of the egg-sac of many
spiders presents an appreciably different appearance than does
other silk spun by the same spiders. According to Apstein
('89) this silk is produced by the cylindrical glands of the female.
These, in the forms studied by this writer, are six in number and
open by spigots, one on each of the middle spinnerets and two
on each of the hind ones. These glands are said to occur as a
rule only in females and to be wanting in the Attidae and in
the Dysderidae.

192

The Life of Spiders

VI.— THE TYPES OF WEBS OF SPIDERS

The snares or webs of different spiders differ greatly in
structure. An imperfect classification can be made which will
indicate in a general way these differences; but the various types
are connected by intermediate forms; and in some cases, a spider
makes a composite web, one that includes two parts representing
two types of webs. The following classification indicates the
principal types of webs and will serve to define the terms applied
to them in the later portions of this book.

Irregular nets. — The maze of threads extending in all direc-
tions that is built by the domestic-spider, Theridion tepidariorum
(Fig. 322) is a good example of an irregular net. Most members
of the Theridiidae and some other spiders spin webs of this type.

Sheet-webs. — The most familiar example of a sheet-web is
that of Linyphia phrygiana (Fig. 408). Here the principal part
of the web consists of a more or less closely woven sheet extended
in a single plane and consisting of threads extending in all direc-
tions in that plane with no apparent regularity of arrangement.

Funnel-webs. — The principal part of a funnel-web is sheet-
like in structure; but webs of this type differ from the true sheet-
webs in having a tube extending from one edge; this tube leads
to the retreat of the spider or serves as a retreat. The web of
the common grass-spider, Agelena ncevia (Fig. 662) illustrates
well this type. Frequently a very loose irregular net is spun above
the sheet of a funnel-web; this impedes the flight of insects and
causes them to fall upon the sheet where the spider, rushing from
its retreat, can capture them.

Orb-webs. — The characteristic feature of an orb-web is that
the central portion, the part lying within the supporting frame-
work, consists of a series of radiating lines of dry and inelastic
silk which support a thread of viscid and elastic silk. Different
webs of this type vary greatly in structure; the principal variations
are the following:

In the more symmetrical of the orb-webs the viscid line
extends throughout the greater part of its length as a spiral line
although near the outer edge o" the orb it is looped back and
forth a few times on the lower side of the web. The web of
Aranea frondosa (Fig. 186) is an excellent illustration of this kind
of a web. Such webs are termed complete orbs.

103

Fig. 186. WEB OF ARANEA FRONDOSA

[Q4

The Life of Spiders

In the webs of some spiders the viscid thread extends in but
few if any spiral turns; the great part of thread being looped back
and forth on the radii. This is well-shown in the web of Nepbila
(Fig. 439) and in that of Metepeira labyrinthea (Fig. 187). Such
a web is termed an incomplete orb.

In an ordinary incomplete orb there is a lack of regularity
in the position of the turns of the viscid thread, different loops
ending on different radii. But the species of Zilla and certain
species of Aranea sometimes
make an incomplete orb in
which the viscid line is omit-
ted from a definite sector of
the orb (Fig. 470). As this
type of web is more often
made by the species of Zilla
than by other spiders, 1 sug-
gest that it be designated as
the {ilia type of orb-web.

In the zilla type of web
there is a trapline extending
from the hub to a retreat
above the web; this trapline
is opposite the vacant sector
of the web.

The making of a zilla type
of web is not even a specific
characteristic. 1 have had a
spider under observation in our
insectary make a complete orb
one day and replace it the next
day by one of the zilla type.

A single known species, Hen{fia basilica, makes, according
lo the observations of Dr. McCook ('89 I. 164), a complete orb
and then pulls it into a dome-shaped structure. Such a web is
termed a domed orb.

The web of Theridiosoma gemmosum (Fig. 415) differs from
other orb-webs in lacking a definite centre or hub, the radii being
grouped into several irregular groups or rays. This web was
named by Dr. McCook a ray-formed orb-web.

The web of Lloborus (Fig. 239) is a complete orb, but it

FiR. tS7.
WEB OF METEPEIRA LABYRINTHEA

•95

The Life of Spiders

differs from the webs described above in the nature of the viscid
silk; it is an orb-web with a hackled band.

Triangular web. — The remarkable web of Hyptiotes (Fig. 246)
represents a distinct type, which has been named the triangular
web.

Irregular webs with hackled bands. — Under this head may be
classed all of the webs made by our common cribellate spiders
excepting Uloborus and Hyptiotes. The webs of the different
genera included here show striking differences, which are de-
scribed in the accounts of the spiders given later.

Sheet and irregular net webs. — The webs of certain spiders, as
Linyphia marginata (Fig. 405) and Linyphia communis (Fig. 400)
are composite in nature being composed of a definite sheet com
bined with an irregular net.

Orb and irregular net. — The web of Metepeira labyrinthea
(Fig. 187) represents also a composite type of web; here an orb-
web is combined with an irregular net. There are species of
Aranea that make this type of web.

VII.— THE BUILDING OF AN ORB-WEB

Few if any of the structures built by lower animals are more
wonderful than the webs of an orb-weaver; it is of interest, there-
fore, to follow the steps by which one is made.

The bridge. — In making its web an orb-weaver first spins
a number of lines extending irregularly in various directions about
the place where its orb is to be. This is the outer supporting
framework. Often the first line spun is a bridge between two
quite distant points so situated with regard to each other that
it would not be possible for the spider to carry a dragline from one
to the other in the ordinary way. For example, webs are often
built between two trees or shrubs above herbage which would
make it impossible for the spider to carry a line over the inter
vening ground; and it is not an unusual occurrence to see a web
stretched between shrubs separated by a running brook.

In these cases the first line was formed in this way: The
spider, after selecting a point for beginning its operations, lifts
up the abdomen away from the object on which it is standing
and spins out a thread, which is carried off by a current in the
air. After a time the thread strikes some object and adheres

196

The Life of Spiders

to it; the spider then pulls the line tight, and fastens it where
it is standing. It then has a bridge along which it can easily run.

The foundation lines. — Having constructed this bridge, which
is usually strengthened by passing back and forth over it and
adding a dragline to it on each trip, it is easy for the spider to
stretch the other lines that are to serve as the outer framework
of the web. In doing this it fastens a thread to one point, and
then walks along to some other point, spinning a dragline as it
goes, and holding it clear of the object on which it is walking
by means of one of its hind legs. When the second point is reached
the thread is pulled tight and fastened in place by an attachment
disk.

If it is desired to spin a second bridge below one already made,
the spider has only to fasten a line to a point below one end of
the first bridge and then walking up the supporting object, and
across the bridge, and down the other support to the right point,
spinning a dragline as it goes; this is then pulled tight and fastened;
and a second bridge is formed; between these bridges the orb
can be built. To complete the outer supporting framework of
the web other lines are stretched in a similar manner between the
bridges and from them to the supporting objects. These are
placed in such a way as to leave an open space, more or less ir-
regular in outline, in which the orb is to be built. The lines
forming this framework have been named the foundation lines.

The radii. — After making the foundation lines, the radiating
lines of the orb are formed. The first step in this operation is
to stretch a line across the open space in the framework so as
to pass through the point which is to be the centre of the orb.
In doing this the spider may start on one side, and be forced to
walk in a very roundabout way on the outer framework to the
opposite side. It carefully holds the new line up behind it as it
goes along, so that it shall not become entangled with the lines
on which it walks; one or both hind feet serve as hands in these
spinning operations. The spider then goes to the point where
the centre of the orb is to be, and fastens another line there, it
then walks back to the outer framework spinning a line as it goes
and holding the new line clear from the one on which it is walking;
the new line is fastened to one of the foundation lines. In this
way all of the radiating lines are made, the spider returning to
the centre of the web to begin each radius. In some cases at

197

Fig. 18S. CENTRE OF WEB OF METARGIOPE TRIFASCIATA

198

The Life of Spiders

least, if not usually, the spider returns to the centre along the
radius just made and spins a line which it does not hold clear
and which adheres to the radius, thus doubling it. In some ob-
servations that I have made it was easy to see that the radius
was thicker behind the spider than in front of it. As the drag-
line consists of two lines, when a radius is doubled it consists of
four; this was well shown in the photograph from which Fig.
192 was made.

The hub — -The centre of the web, where the radii converge,
is strengthened by a mesh or net-work of lines termed the huh.
A part of the hub is made while the radii are being stretched,
the spider working a little on the hub on each return to the
centre of the web; after all the radii are stretched the hub is
completed.

The nature of the hub of the webs of different species of spiders
differs greatly and forms one of the distinctively characteristic
features of them. Three types of hubs were named by McCook
('89 I. 54); these are the meshed huh, the sheeted hub, and the open
hub.

The meshed hub is formed of a series of irregularly shaped
meshes, through which one can often trace the continuation of
the radii as zigzag lines; the radii being pulled out of their direct
course in the making of the hub. In some webs there is but little
regularity in the meshes of the hub (Fig. 185); but in others
the hub is a very beautiful structure.

The sheeted hub consists of a closely woven sheet of silk spun
upon the net-work. This type is well-shown in the webs of
Metargiope (Fig. 188).

The open hub resembles the hub of a wagon, in being a firm
structure supporting the spokes or radii and having an open space
in the centre (Fig. 189). This type of hub is characteristic
of the webs of Micrathena and of those of the Tetragnathidae.

The notched \one. — Immediately outside of the hub there is
an area in which there are a few turns of a spiral line; the number
of these turns varies from four or five or even less to ten or more.
In spinning this line, which is done immediately alter the hub is
made, the spider attaches it to each radius lengthwise tor a short
distance instead of crossing the radius at right angles. Hie pulling
of the line taut between the radii pulls them out of their direct
course and gives to this area the appearance that suggested the

199

Fig. i8g. CENTRE OF WEB OF MICRATHENA SAGITTATA

Fig. 190. HUB OF WEB OF MANGORA GIBBEROSA
200

Fig. 190 bis. BEGINNING OF AN ORB-WEB. THE LOWER PART OF THE
WEB PHOTOGRAPHED WAS KROKEN

Fig. 191. A HALF-MADE WEB OF ARANEA LAHYRINTHEA

201

The Life of Spiders

name the notched ione. (Fig. 190.) This method of fastening
the spiral line adds greatly to the strength of this region of the
web.

The spiral guy-line.— After the completion of the centre of
the web, the next step is to stay the radii by a spiral line, which
is a continuation of the line of the notched zone, and which ex-
tends spirally over the entire area that is to be occupied by the
orb. As the function of this line is merely to hold the radii
in place during subsequent operations in the making of the web
1 have called it the spiral guy-line. The turns of this spiral are
as far apart as the spider can conveniently reach and it crosses
the radii at right angles (Fig. 190 bis). In Fig. 191 which rep-
resents a web at a somewhat later stage in its construction,
four or five turns of the spiral guy-line can be seen between the
hub and the outer completed portion of the web.

The viscid spiral. — All of the threads spun up to this stage
in the construction of the web, excepting the attachment disks
by which threads are anchored, are dry and inelastic. The spider
now proceeds to stretch upon the radii a viscid and elastic line,
which is the most important part of the web, the other lines being
merely a framework to support it. In spinning the viscid line
the spider begins at the outer margin of the orb, and passing
around it fastens this line to each radius as it goes. At first
the spider does not pass entirely around the web but makes a
greater or less number of loops on the lower part of the web. In
the web represented by Fig. 191, which was the web of a spider
that makes an incomplete orb, there are many of these loops;
but in most orb-webs there are only a few, the spider passing
entirely around the web after making a few loops.

The turns of the viscid spiral are placed quite close together
and the spiral guy-line is cut away turn by turn as the viscid spiral
approaches it. The remnants of the spiral guy-line remain
attached to the radii and form a series of minute specks which
can be seen in large webs after their completion (Fig. 188).

In spinning the viscid line the spider fastens it to a radius
by means of a small attachment disk; and then moves on pulling
out the thread from the spinnerets; but before the thread is fast-
ened to another radius the spider takes hold of it with either
the claws or with a spine of one hind leg and straightening out
this leg pulls out from the spinnerets more of this thread; the

202

The Life of Spiders

spinnerets are then applied to the next radius and the thread
fastened in place; after which the spider takes away its hind leg
and the thread contracts to the length of the space between the
two radii. In Fig. 192 the fine threads of the attachment disk
connecting the viscid thread to the radius can be seen.

The pulling out of the viscid line by the hind leg before it
is fastened between two radii leaves it relaxed when put in place;
so that it can be easily stretched by an entangled insect, and
thus ensures the insect being caught in other turns of the viscid
spiral.

Fig. ig2. FROM A PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF A RADIUS AND A VISCID LINE

The free lone— -The viscid spiral is not continued entirely
to the notched zone, an area of greater or less width being left,
free from any spiral line; this is termed the free {one. In some
webs this feature is not conspicuous, but in others the free zone
is of considerable width and furnishes a means by which the
spider can pass freely from one side of the web to the other.

The stabilimentum. — Some of the orb-weavers strengthen
their webs by spinning a zigzag ribbon across the centre or below
the hub (Fig. 188). This ribbon has been termed the stabili-
mentum. It consists of a large number of minute threads resem-
bling the swathing band and is doubtless spun from the small
spinning tubes of either the p\ riform or of the aciniform glands.

203

The Life of Spiders

The stabilimentum is sometimes an elaborate structure. This
is especially true in the webs of the young of Metargiope trifas-
ciata (Fig. 193). In fact 1 have observed that immature spiders
are more apt to make a stabilimentum than old ones. I have
noted this especially with Metargiope and with Uloborus. The spi-
ders of the genus Cyclosa make a stabilimentum composed largely
the dry skins of their victims.

The trapline. — When the orb is completed, many orb-
weavers rest on the hub and wait there for their prey; if disturbed

they either drop to the
ground, spinning a drag-
line as they go, up which
they ascend to the web
later, or they rush off at
one side to the support of
the web. In many other
species the spider has a
tent above or at one side
of the orb to which it
retreats when disturbed
and in which it waits for
the ensnarement of its
prey. This retreat is con-
nected with the hub of the
web by one or more
threads which serve as
a means of passage to and
from the web. When wait-
ing for its prey, the spider
rests in the retreat with
one or more of its feet
upon the line leading to the hub of the orb; by this means it
can feel any disturbance of the web. This use of the thread
connecting the retreat with the orb has suggested the name
trapline for it.

The tracks of orb-weavers. — In running about on their orbs,
spiders ordinarily use the radii as means of support; and in passing
to and from their retreat, they use the trapline, avoiding, if
possible, contact with the viscid spiral line. But it sometimes
happens, especially if a spider be frightened, that the orb is

Fig. IQ3. STABILIMENTUM OF METARGIOPE

204

Fig. 194- WEB OF ARANEA FRONDOSUS, REDUCED

205

The Life of Spiders

injured by the passage of the spider. This is apt to occur when
the angle between the trapline and the plane of the orb is small;
the spider, when rushing up the trapline, may touch and bring
together several turns of the viscid line with each forward move-
ment of one of its legs, a projecting knee reaching the orb. Such
a trail is shown on the left side of the orb represented by Fig.
194. The trapline is shown indistinctly behind the orb; the
retreat was in the curled leaf at the upper left corner of the orb.

VIII.— THE NESTS OF SPIDERS

The nest-building habit is found both among spiders that
build webs and among those that do not; and the forms of the

nests are even more
numerous than are
the types of webs.

Among the spiders
that live on the
ground are some
that make their nests
in the earth. The
most common nests
of this type are the
tunnels of the wolf-
spiders (Lycosidae).
These vary from a
simple vertical shaft
with a delicate silken
lining to one in which
the entrance is sur-

Fig. 195. RETREAT OF ARANEA THADDEUS mOUllted by 3. turret

or watch-tower (Fig,
722). Even more remarkable than these are the nests of
the trap-door spiders in which the entrance is furnished with a
hinged door (Fig. 216), and, frequently, with a second door at
some distance from the entrance; and still more remarkable is
the silken, tubular nest of the purse-web spider. (Fig. 228.)

Very many spiders, representing widely different families,
make nests by folding or rolling leaves and lining the enclosed
space with silk. This type of nest is made by the Clubionids,

206

The Life of Spiders

by some crab-spiders, by some of the jumping spiders, and by
various others.

Some web-building species live upon their webs and have
no definite retreat, merely running away from the web or dropping
to the ground when disturbed. But very many of them build a
nest near the web in which they watch for their prey and to
which they retreat when frightened. In the funnel-web weavers
this is a silken tube connected with the sheet which forms the
principal part of the web. This funnel either serves as the
retreat or leads into a more distant crack. Many of the orb-
weavers roll or fold a leaf or tie several leaves together and line
the space thus formed with silk. This nest is usually built above
the web or at one side and there is a trapline leading from it to
the centre of the orb, by which any disturbance of the web is
communicated to the spider waiting in its nest, and down which
it rushes to get its prey. A very elaborate nest of this kind is
made by the lattice-spider, Aranea thaddeus (Fig. 195). The
young of many species make their retreats entirely of silk while
the adults of the same species use a folded leaf or a bunch of
leaves.

IX.— THE PAIRING OF SPIDERS

There are many very interesting facts connected with the
pairing of spiders; but the scope of this work admits of only a brief
reference to them here. The anomalous specialization in the
male of a pair of appendages of the head, the palpi, as secondary
sexual organs is described in the chapter on external anatomy.
In this place I wish merely to call attention to the behaviour of
certain spiders at the mating season.

The sedentary spiders are the ones most easily observed at
this time, owing to the fact that the females remain upon or near
their webs and are therefore easily found, or are frequently
accidently discovered, when mating.

With many species of these spiders, there is a striking dis-
parity in the size of the two sexes, the female being many times
larger than the male; but with others the difference in size is not
so marked.

The males of the orb-weavers, for example, resemble the
females in habits, making webs like them, until they reach
maturity. They then wander in search of their mates. After

207

The Life of Spiders

which they are found in or near the webs of the females. The
approach of the male to the female is made with great care; for
if the female is not ready to receive his advances, she is apt to
pounce upon him and destroy him.

In the case of the jumping spiders, Attida?, the courting
habits are very remarkable. The males, of some species at
least, dance before the females, and display their bright colours in
a way that is evidently intended to attract the attention of
the female. This has been described in detail by Mr. and Mrs.
Peckham ('89 and '90).

X.— THE MOTHERHOOD OF SPIDERS

Among the more interesting details in the life of spiders is
the provision made by the females for the care of their young.
Here as elsewhere in the economy of these creatures we find

variety, the methods employed by one
differing greatly from those employed by
another. There is, however, within the
limits of each of the families a considerable
degree of uniformity in the plan adopted,
although each species has its own way of
carrying out this plan.

The first step is the care of the eggs.
These are never laid singly, as is the case
with many insects, but are invariably laid
in one or more masses; and each mass is
protected by a covering of silk, the egg-sac
or cocoon.

Most spiders deposit all their eggs at one
laying and enclose them in a single egg-sac;
but in certain species the egg-laying is ex-
tended over a considerable period of time and
a series of egg-sacs is formed. This is true
of Metepeira labyrinthea and of the species of Cyclosa (Fig. 196).
The egg-sac is not merely a covering made in a haphazard
way; but is a more or less elaborate structure, made in a definite
manner characteristic of the species; it is frequently as easy to
recognize the species from a study of the egg-sac as it is from a
study of the spider herself.

208

Fig. 106. EGG-SACS
OF CYCLOSA BIFURCA

The Life of Spiders

The simplest kind of an egg-sac is merely a mesh of threads
holding the mass of eggs together; but so delicate that the eggs
can be seen through it; such an egg-sac is made by Pholcus (Fig.
320). Other spiders, as some species of Aranea, enclose the eggs
in a fluffy mass of silk which effectually conceals them, but which

Fig. ig7. EGG-SAC OF MIRANDA AURANTIA

has no definite outline. While still others make an egg-sac of
a very definite form and consisting of several layers of silk, differ-
ing in texture. The egg-sac of Miranda aurantia (Fig. 197) is
a good illustration of this type. If one of these be opened it will
be found that the eggs are enclosed in a silken cup, which is

209

The Life of Spiders

surrounded by a thick layer of flossy silk, which in turn is en-
closed in the firm, brown, closely woven outer covering that
gives the characteristic pear-shaped form to this sac.

Many egg-sacs are more or less nearly spherical in outline.
This is true of some of those that are suspended in the web as
is the case with those of the common domestic spider, Tberidion
tepidariorum; many others are lenticular in form as for example,
the egg-sacs of the Drassids (Fig. 198). While still others depart
widely from either of these simple forms. The egg-sac of Miranda
aurantia, mentioned above, is pear-shaped; that of the closely
allied Metargiope trifaciata is cup-shaped with a flat top; and
the egg-sac of Argyrodes irigonum reminds one of a beautiful
Grecian vase (Fig. 199).

The outer covering of most egg-sacs is opaque; but in a few
cases it is translucent; the beautiful elliptical egg-sac of the cave
spider, Meta menardii, (Fig. 200) does not conceal the enclosed
mass of eggs; neither does that of the egg-sac of Aranea trifolium.

Some spiders after they have completed the silken portion
of the egg-sac add a protecting layer of some foreign substance.
The grass-spider, Agelcna ncevia, makes its egg-sacs beneath the
loose bark of a dead tree, or in some other similar situation, and
covers them with bits of rubbish (Fig. 201). A beautiful pear-
shaped egg-sac (Fig. 202) which has a complete coating of mud is
often found attached by a cord of silk to the lower surface of a
stone or a piece of wood lying on the ground. The maker of this
mud-coated egg-sac has not been determined as yet. The egg-
sacs of Tetragnatha have the appearance of bearing a coating
of foreign matter due to the presence of curiously twisted tufts
of silk differing in colour from the rest of the egg-sac (Fig. 203).

Most spiders fasten their egg-sac in some secure position.
It is often built against some object as the side of a stone or the
branch of a tree or the side of a building. Many are attached to
trees beneath the loose bark. The labyrinth-spider (p. 465)
fastens its series of egg-sacs to a strong silken cord that holds it
in place through the winter, and the species of Miranda anchoi
theirs by means of many strong silken threads (Fig. 197). Some
species suspend the egg-sac, by a cord, in or near the web. Ir
Theridiosoma (Fig. 417) the sac is fastened to twigs or to the sider
of cliffs in the damp localities frequented by this spider; this,
too, is the case with Ero furcata which envelops its egg-sac in a

210

Fig. 198.
EGG-SAC OF A DRASSID

Fig. 199.

EGG-SAC OF ARGYRODES

TRIGONUM

Fig. 201.
EGG-SAC OF AGELENA N/EVIA

Fig. 200.
EGG-SAC OF META
MENARDII

Fig. 202.
EGG-SAC, MAKER UNKNOWN

21 I

The Life of Spiders

silken net (Fig. 567) and suspends it by a cord to the sides of
damp cliffs.

An egg-sac which has interested me greatly is one that I
have found attached to the branches of shrubs and of trees. This
egg-sac (Fig. 204) is made within a rolled leaf, the petiole of which
is securely fastened to the twig by a band of silk, so that it is
held in place through the winter. This egg-sac resembles in
miniature the cocoon of the Promethea moth. 1 have been unable
to determine what spider makes it.

The maternal duties of the spiders whose egg-sacs are re-
ferred to in the preceding paragraphs end with the making and
fastening in place of the egg-sac. The spider dies soon after

this labour is per-
formed, and the
spiderlings when
they hatch must
shift for them-
selves. But with
certain other spi-
ders this is not
the case.

In some species
of the genus Dic-
tyna, the female
makes her egg-sac
within the web;
the young soon
hatch; and mother and young live together for a considerable
period within the same web. Here the young are protected
from attack by the presence of the mother; and are saved the
necessity of making a web to catch their prey.

More remarkable than this are the evidences of maternal
care exhibited by the nursery-web weavers, Pisauridae. These
spiders spin no web for catching insects but stalk their prey.
After the egg-sac is made the female carries it with her, under
her body wherever she goes (Fig. 683). When the spiderlings are
about to emerge from the egg-sac, the mother takes it to the top
of some herb or to the tip of a shrub, and fastens it in the centre
of a nursery made by spinning a web over the leaves. She then
posts herself as a guard on the outside of the nursery (Fig. 684).

Fig. 203. EGG-SACS OF TETRAGNATHA

212

The Life of Spiders

The wolf-spiders, Lycosidae, also carry their egg-sac with
them while they stalk their prey. The egg-sac in this case is
dragged behind the spider, which appears to be a more convenient
method than that employed by the nursery web-weavers. The
wolf-spiders make no nursery;
and when the spiderlings emerge
from the egg-sac they pass to
the back of the mother and are
carried about pappoose-like for a
considerable period. (Fig. 715.)

XL— THE VENOM OF
SPIDERS

There is a very general be-
lief that spiders are to be feared
on account of the venomous
nature of their bites; and ii is
probable that the feelings of
repugnance with which these
creatures are commonly regarded
are due to this belief; but there
is really very little reason for it.

It is true that spiders se-
crete poison with which they kill
their prey; but it does not necessarily follow that the poison that
would kill a fly would harm a man. And, too, spiders are exceed-
ingly timid and think only of escape when approached by man.
Even when they are caught in one's hand they merely try to get
away and do not, like a bee or a wasp, endeavour to facilitate their
escape by stinging their captor. During my study of spiders 1 have
collected thousands of specimens and have taken very many in
my hand but have never been bitten by one. Still the anxious
reader may ask what would have happened had you been bitten

As already stated, (p. 170), the venom apparatus consist;
of a pairof glands in the cephalothorax, or one in the basal segment
of each chelicera, from each of which a duct leads to a small
opening near the tip of the chelicera of the same side (Fig. 70
This opening is so placed that it is not closed by the pressure of
the bite but allows the venom to flow into the wound.

Fig. 204. EGG-SAC IN ROLLED LEAF

21 3

The Life of Spiders

It is well-known what results follow the bite of an insect
by a spider; let us now consider what follows when a spider
injects its venom into man.

Several of the more prominent arachnologists, including
Mr. Blackwall ('55) of England, and Baron Walckenaer ('37)
and M. Duges ('36) of France, have made experiments to deter-
mine the effect on man of the bite of spiders. Each of these
experimenters caused himself to be bitten by spiders; and all
agree that the effects of the bites did not differ materially from
those of pricks made at the same time with a needle.

1 have given considerable attention to this question with
the result that I firmly believe that in the North at least there
is no spider that is to be feared by man. I have endeavoured
to trace to their source some of the newspaper stories of terrible
results following the bite of a spider; but have not found a bit
of evidence that would connect a spider with the injury in
any of the cases investigated. It often happens that a person
suffering from blood poisoning produced in some unknown
way infers that he has been bitten by a spider; or the inference
may be made by some one else. When an enterprising reporter
writes up the incident for a newspaper, the spider bite is not
referred to as an inference, but as a fact.

The so-called Tarantula (Heteropoda) that is frequentl)
brought to the North in bunches of bananas is often described as
the cause of serious injury. This, however, although a large
spider, is an inoffensive one. Mr. John T. Lloyd informs me that
he has collected scores of specimens of this species with his hands
in Samoa, where it is abundant and has never been bitten by it.

Although we have in the North no spider that is to be feared,
it is quite possible that in the South it is different. I confess
that I should not like to be bitten by one of the larger tarantulas
of that region, although I know of no well-authenticated case of a
person being bitten by one.

The spiders of the genus Latrodectus, of which we have a
common representative in the South, are feared wherever they
occur, and it is quite possible that they are more venomous
than other spiders. See the account of Latrodectus madans on
a later page.

The conclusion of the matter is this: In the North there is
no common spider that is to be feared; in the South, there is a

214

The Life of Spiders

single easily recognized species that is believed by some people
to be dangerous. Surely one should not hesitate to study spiders
on account of their venomous nature.

XII.— THE AERONAUTIC SPIDERS

Although spiders like man possess only legs as organs of
locomotion, like man they are able to travel through the
air by artificial means. Long before the invention of balloons
or of aeroplanes, spiders had solved the problem of aerial
navigation.

The method adopted by spiders differs greatly from any of
those adopted by man in his efforts to navigate the air. The
spider's method is more closely analogous to that by which many
seeds, as those of the dandelion, are carried long distances; and
the object is the same, the distribution of the species.

Attached to the dandelion seed there is a pappus consisting
of a bundle of fine threads. These, when the seed is mature and
fitted to start upon its journey, spread apart forming a very light,
nearly spherical mass, which is easily carried away with the at-
tached seed by the wind. Thus the seeds of a single plant are
scattered over a wide area instead of too thickly seeding the place
of their origin.

With spiders it is not the seeds or eggs that are distributed
but the spiders themselves; and the object by which they are
buoyed up when carried by the wind differs from the pappus of
a seed in consisting largely of a single thread, or a bundle of
parallel threads.

It is usually, but not invariably, very young spiders that
exhibit the aeronautic habit; and exhibitions of it are most often
observed in warm and comparatively still autumn days. At
this time great numbers of young spiders, of many different
species, climb each to the top of some object. This may be a
fence post, the top of a twig, the upper part of some herb, or
merely the summit of a clod of earth. Here the spider lifts up
its abdomen and spins out a thread, which if there is a mild
upward current of air is carried away by it. Occasionally the
spider will attach a small flocculent mass to this thread which
will increase the force of the current of air upon it. This spinning
process is continued until the friction of the air upon the silk is

215

The Life of Spiders

sufficient to buoy up the spider. It then lets go its hold with
its feet and is carried off by the wind.

That these ballooning spiders are carried long distances in
this way is shown by the fact that they have been met by ships at
sea hundreds of miles from land. And the showers of gossamer
which are occasionally observed are produced by ballooning spiders.

It often happens that spiders attempt to fly when the wind
is too strong and the threads they emit are not carried up but are
merely blown against some nearby object. I have known in-

Fig. 2os. A SEA OF GOSSAMER

stances in which large fields have been covered with a gauze of
silk in this way. Members of a Country Club have reported
to me that the grass of their links was so thickly covered with silk
of spiders that the shoes and trousers of the players were greatly
soiled by it.

Sometimes sheets of silk are formed by the massing together
of the threads of myriads of spiders in such situations that the
sheets are finally torn away by the wind and later are rained down
far from the place of origin. This is the explanation of the showers
of gossamer which are occasionally recorded.

216

The Life of Spiders

An account of remarkable sheets of gossamer, based on the
observations of Mr. J. B. Lembert of Yosemite, Cal., has been
published by Dr. L. O. Howard (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. Ill, 191).
These sheets are formed on the sides of the Yosemite Valley, are
of yearly occurrence, and of great extent.

On one occasion I saw a ploughed field that was covered with
a sheet of silk. It was evident that an immense number of small
spiders had attempted to fly but that the wind had blown their
thread merely from the crest of one furrow to another. Although
the field was completely covered with the sheet of silk, so delicate
was this fabric that it was invisible except where the light of the
sun was reflected directly to the eye of the observer; the appearance
being like that of the wake of the moon on slightly disturbed
water (Fig. 205).

217

CHAPTER V:

Order ARANEIDA (Ar-a-ne'i-da)
The Spiders

The order Araneida includes only the spiders. These differ
from other Arachnida in having a sac-like, unsegmented, abdomen,
which is joined to the cephalothorax by a slender pedicel (Fig.
206). In a single genus, Liphistius, which is found in Sumatra,
the dorsal wall of the abdomen is segmented.

The segments of the cephalothorax are closely united so that
none are distinct. The chelicerae are usually uncate, that is the
claw is folded back into a groove in the basal segment, like the
blade of a pocket-knife into the handle (Fig. 207) ; but sometimes
they are chelate, there being a prolongation of the first segment
which is opposed to the claw, thus forming a pincer-like organ
(Fig. 208). The pedipalps are more or less leg-like and are fur-
nished in the larger number of families with more or less distinct
endites (Fig. 209 en); in the male the terminal portion of the
pedipalp is modified into an organ for the transference of the
seminal fluid. The four pairs of legs are all fitted for walking.
There are usually eight eyes; but in several families and in isolated
genera of others the number is reduced to six; rarely there are only
four or two, and some cave species are eyeless. Two pairs of
abdominal legs are preserved in a more or less two-branched form
and serve to carry the outlets of the silk glands (see p. 134);
these legs are termed the spinnerets.

The order Araneida includes two suborders, which have been
named by E. Ray Lancaster, the Mesothela? and the Opistho-
thelse respectively. These are distinguished as follows:

Suborder MESOTHEL/E (Mes-o-the'lse)

This suborder is not represented in our fauna; but it is briefly
discussed here on account of its great scientific interest. It

218

Fig. 208. A CHEL-
ATE CHELICERA

Fig. 206. A SPIDER, SHOWING THE PEDICEL OF THE
ABDOMEN

Fig. 207. AN UNCATE
CHELICERA

Fig. 209. PEDIPALP OF A SPIDER ENDITE

219

Order Araneida

includes a single family, the Liphistiidae, represented by a single
known genus, Liphistius, which is doubtless the most generalized
of the living members of the order Araneida.

The most strik-
ing characteristic of
this genus is the fact
that the abdomen,
when seen from above,
appears to be distinct-
ly segmented; there

Fig. 210. PROFILE OF LIPHISTIUS (after Warburton) being a Series of Well-

marked tergal plates
(Fig. 210). The ventral surface of the first and second segments
are furnished also with sternal plates, covering the genital aperture
and the two pairs of book-lungs.

The two pairs of abdominal legs that are preserved as spin-
nerets are each two-branched, thus forming eight spinnerets.
These are situated near the middle of the ventral aspect of the
abdomen (Fig. 210). It was this fact that suggested the name of
the suborder, Mesothelae being from meso, middle and thele, teat.

The only known species are found in Sumatra.

Suborder OPISTHOTHELiE (O-pis-tho-the'lae)

In this suborder, which includes all American spiders, the
abdomen is not segmented. And the spinnerets are situat-
ed near the posterior end of the abdomen close to the anus.
The name of the suborder is from opisthen, behind and thele,
teat.

In this suborder we find only six spinnerets, the first pair
being unbranched. It has been suggested that the inner branches
of the first pair are represented in some spiders by the cribellum,
and in others by the colulus.

This suborder includes more than forty families; representa-
tives of thirty of these have been found in America north of
Mexico and are discussed in the following pages.

The families of this suborder represent two quite distinct
groups of families, each of which may be considered a super-
family, and designated as the Avicularioidea and the Argiopoidea
respectively. The Avicularioidea includes the tarantulas, char-

220

Order Araneida

acterized on page 228; the Argiopoidea, the true spiders, charac-
terized on page 257.

The grouping of the families of spiders adopted in this work
is indicated by the following table; on a later page there is given
an analytical table for the determination of families.

GROUPS OF NORTH AMERICAN FAMILIES OF

SPIDERS

I. Suborder Mesothel^e. Not represented in America.
11. Suborder Opisthotheive.

Superfamily Avicularioidea. The Tarantulas. P. 228
Family Aviculariid/e. P. 229.
Family Atypjd^. p. 252.
Superfamily Argiopoidea. The true Spiders. P. 257.

The Hackled-Band Weavers or Cribellate

Spiders

Family Hypochilid/e. P. 257.
Family Uloborid/e. P. 262.
Family Deinopid^. P. 273.
Family Dictynid^e. P. 274.
Family CEcobiid^e. P. 287.
Family Filistatid/e. P. 289.

The Plain-Thread Weavers or Acribellate Spiders

The Six-Eyed Spiders

the four-spiracled six-eyed spiders
Family Dysderid/e. P. 298.
Family Oonopid/e. P. 302.

THE THREE-SPIRACLED SIX-EYED SPIDERS

Family Scytodid/e. P. 303.
Family Leptonetid^e. P. 307.

The Eight-Eyed Acribellate Spiders

isolated families

Family Prodidomid/e. P. 308.
Family Drassid/E. P. 308.
Family /odariid/e. P. 323.

221

Order Araneida

THE RETITELARIAN OR NET-WEAVING SPIDERS

Family Pholcid/e. P. 325.
Family Theridiid/E. P. 330.
Family Linyphiid^e. P. 368.
Family Argiopid^e. P. 400.
Family Mimetid^e. P. 518.

THE LATERIGRADE OR SIDEWISE RUNNING SPIDERS

Family Thomisid^. P. 521.
Family Selenopid^e. P. 550.
Family Heteropodid^e. P. 551.

THE TUBITELARIAN OR TUBE-WEAVING SPIDERS

Family Ctenid^e. P. 555.
Family Clubionid^e. P. 557.
Family Agelenid/E. P. 582.

THE citigrade or running spiders

Family Pisaurid/E. P. 598.
Family Lycosid/E. P. 618.
Family Oxyopid/E. P. 657.

THE SALTIGRADE OR JUMPING SPIDERS

Family Attid/E. P. 661.

TABLE FOR SEPARATING THE NORTH AMERI-
CAN FAMILIES OF SPIDERS

A. With two pairs of book-lungs.

B. Without a cribellum and a calamistrum; legs not ex-
tremely long.
C. Palpus of the pedipalp arising from the tip of the coxa
or from near the tip. P. 229. Aviculariid^e

CC. Palpus of the pedipalp arising from the outer side of
the coxa near the middle of its length P. 252. Atypid^e
BB. With a cribellum and a calamistrum; legs slender and
extremely long. P. 257. Hypochilid^e

222

Order Araneida

AA. With only one pair of book-lungs.

B. With a cribellum and a calamistrum.
C. Eyes all dark in colour; lateral eyes on each side farther
apart than the two pairs of median eyes; posterior
metatarsi armed below with spines which are usually
arranged serially.
D. Posterior median eyes very large. P. 273.

Deinopid^e
DD. Posterior median eyes of moderate size. P. 262.

Uloborid^e
CC. Some of the eyes pearly white; posterior metatarsi not
armed below with a series of spines.
D. Anterior median and posterior lateral eyes dark in
colour; group of eyes near the middle of the
cephalothorax; posterior median eyes not cir-
cular. P. 287. CEcobiid^e
DD. Anterior median eyes dark in colour, all others
pearly white.
E. Eyes not massed in a small group; chelicerae
robust and furnished with a lateral condyle.

P. 274. DlCTYNID/E

EE. Eyes massed in a small group; chelicerae small and
without a lateral condyle. P. 289. Filistatid/e
BB. Without a cribellum and calamistrum.
C. Tarsi with only two claws.
D. With only six eyes.

E. With a pair of tracheal spiracles behind the lung-
slits.
F. Coxae of the four pairs of legs similar and sub-
globose. P. 302. Oonopid^e
FF. Coxae of the first two pairs of legs much longer
than the other and cylindrical. P. 298.

Dysderid^e
EE. With a single tracheal spiracle near the spin-
nerets. P. 303. SCYTODID^E

DD. With eight eyes.

E. First and second pairs of legs stouter and longer
than the third and fourth pairs, and extending
sidewise ("Crab-spiders").
F. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae

223

Order Araneida

indistinct and unarmed; spiders of small or of

moderate size. P. 521. Thomisid^

FF. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae

distinct and toothed; large subtropical species.

G. With six eyes in the anterior row. P. 500.

Selenopid^
GG. Eyes are arranged in two rows of four each.
P. 551. Heteropodid^

EE. Legs of the ordinary type; the fourth pair usually
longer than the others.
F. Eyes equal in size or nearly so and usually ar-
ranged in two rows.
G. Chelicerae very large, eyes in three rows.

P. 308. Prodidomid^e

GG. Chelicerae normal or small, eyes usually in
two rows.
H. Fore spinnerets widely separated. P. 308.

DRASSID/t

HH. Fore spinnerets contiguous.

1. Lower margin of the furrow of the che-
licerae indistinct and unarmed. P. 521.

Thomisid^e
1 1 . Lower margin of the furrow of the che-
licerae distinct and toothed.
J. Eyes usually arranged in three or four
transverse rows. Truncate end of the
endites entirely clothed with very
dense uneven hairs. P. 555.

Ctenid^e

J J. Eyes arranged in two more or less

parallel rows. Truncate end of the

endites furnished with a band of hairs.

P. 557. CLUBIONID/'E

FF. Eyes unequal in size and arranged in three or
four rows.
G. Eyes in three rows, those of the second row as
large as the others (Homalonychus). P. 323.

ZoDARIIDj'E

GG. Eyes of the second row, when in three rows,
very small. P. 661. Attid^

224

Order Araneida

CC. Tarsi with three claws.

D. Without eyes, cave spiders (Anthrobia). P. 368.

Linyphiid^e
DD. With only six eyes. (Compare DDD.)

E. With a pair of tracheal spiracles just behind the
lung-slits. P. 298. DysderiD/^

EE. Without a pair of tracheal spiracles just behind
the lung-slits.
F. With a distinct suture between the labium and
the sternum.
G. Colulus wanting (Cbori?omma). P. 582. Agelenid^e
GG. Colulus present. P. 307. Leptonetid^e

FF. Without a distinct suture between the labium
and the sternum.
G. Opening of the reproductive organs a simple
slit; palpus of male simple (Diguetia).
P. 303. Scytodida:

GG. Females with an epigynum; palpus of male
highly specialized (Spermophora). P. 325.

Pholcid^e
DDD. With eight eyes and with six spinnerets. (Com-
pare DDDD.)
E. Eyes similar (i. e., all pearly white or all dark in
colour).
F. Eyes all pearly white.
G. Opening of reproductive organs a simple slit;
palpus of male simple {Plectreurys). P. 303.

ScYTODID/E

GG. Females with an epigynum; palpus of male
highly specialized.
H. Hind spinnerets very long. P. 582.

Agelenid/e
HH. Mind spinnerets short. P. 400.

ARGIOPID/'E

FF. Eyes all dark in colour.

G. Eyes equal in size or nearly so.

H. Hind spinnerets very long. P. 582.

AGELENID/'E

H. Hind spinnerets not markedly longer than
the fore spinnerets.

225

Order Araneida

I. Post-abdomen unusually long. (Adult

males.) P. 262. Uloborid^

II. Post-abdomen of usual length. P. 400.

Argiopid^e
GG. Eyes unequal in size.

H. The trochanters with a deep semi-circular

notch in thedistal border on the lower side.

1. The two pieces of the lorum of the pedicel

either united by a transverse suture or

the anterior piece with a notch behind

into which the posterior piece fits. Eyes

in two rows in our more common species,

sometimes in four rows. Tibia of the

pedipalp of the male with an external

apophysis. Egg-sac carried by female

by the chelicerae. P. 598. Pisaurid^e

II. The anterior piece of the lorum of the

pedicel rounded behind and fitting into a

notch in the posterior piece. Eyes in

three rows; the first row consists of four

small eyes, and the second and third rows

each of two large eyes. Tibia of the

pedipalp of the male unarmed. Egg-sac

carried suspended to the spinnerets of

the female. P. 618. Lycosid^

H H. The trochanters not notched or but slightly so.

I. Posterior row of eyes procurved. P. 657.

OXYOPID/'E

II. Posterior row of eyes recurved. (Adult
males.) P. 262. Uloborid/e

EE. Eyes dissimilar in colour.

F. Eyes in a compact group near the middle of the

length of the cephalothorax. (Adult males.)

P. 287. CEcobiid/e

FF. Eyes distinctly in front of the middle of the

thorax.

G The tibia? and metatarsi of the first two pairs

of legs armed with a series of very long

spines regularly spaced, with a series of

much shorter spines between each two long

226

Order Araneida

spines; the short spines are curved and the
members of each series are successively
longer and longer. Fig. 564, P. 518.

Mimetid/e

GG. The tibiae and metatarsi of the first two pairs

of legs not armed as in the Mimetidae.

H. The tarsi of the fourth pair of legs armed on

the inside with a series of from six to ten

strong, curved setae arranged in a single

series and diminishing in length toward

the tip of the tarsus, Fig. 323, P. 330.

Theridiid/e

HH. Tarsi not armed as in the Theridiidae.

1. Tips of endites contiguous.

J. Anterior median eyes greatly reduced in

size and isolated. P. 325. Pholcid/e

JJ. Anterior median eyes not much reduced

and not isolated. (Adult males.) P. 289

Filistatid/e
II. Tips of endites not contiguous.

J . Lateral condyle of the chelicerae present.
K. Hind spinnerets very long. P. 582.

Agelenid/e

KK. Hind spinnerets no longer than the

fore spinnerets. (Adult males.) P. 274

Dictynid/e
J J . I ,ateral condyle of the chelicerae wanting.
K. The tarsi of the fourth pair of legs
clothed beneath with numerous
serrated bristles, but not with a
single series of stout serrate spines
as in the Theridiidae. Orb-weaving
species. (Theridiosoma.) P. 400.

Argiopid>e
KK. The tarsi of the fourth pair of legs
not clothed with serrated bristles.
Not orb-weavers. P. 3C8.

LlNYPHIID.^E

DDDD, With eight eyes and with only two spinnerets.
(l.utica.) P. 323. Zodariid/e

227

CHAPTER VI:

Superfamily AVICULARIOIDEA (A-vic-u-la-ri-oi'de-a)

The Tarantulas

.-•

Fig. 211. A TARANTULA, EURYPELMA HENTZII

The superfamily Avicularioidea includes the large spiders
that are well-known in the warmer parts of our country as taran-
tulas and certain other closely allied forms.

By many writers this group of families is termed the Mygalo-
morphas; but as the old generic name My gale, long used for these
spiders, was first used for a genus of mammals, it and its deriva-
tives cannot be
properly applied
to spiders.

The com-
mon name ta-
rantula was first
applied to an
European spider
which does not
belong to the

Avicularioidea, Lycosa larentula, the spider that was supposed
to cause tarantism by its bite.* The name has been trans-
ferred in this country to the members of this superfamily
and is so firmly established in the language of the people of
the South and West that it would be impossible to change it.
I have therefore adopted it. In this sense it is spelled ta-
rantula not tarentula. This matter is further complicated by
the fact that the generic name Tarantula must be used for a
genus of tailless whip-scorpions having been first used in this
sense (see p. 20). But the confusion need not be great, as
these whip-scorpions occur only in the extreme southern parts
of our country, and are known by the latter name.

*Tarantism is an hysterical disease which was common in southern Europe in medieval times.
It wa.3 characterised by an inordinate desire for dancing; it arose in individuals that believed they
had been bitten by this spider and was then contagious.

228

Superfamily AviculariciJ.a

In the Avicularioidea the chelicerae project forward and the
claw of the chelicera moves vertically (Fig. 211); the pedipalps
(Fig. 212) are not furnished with a well-developed endite, except
in the Atypidae; and there are two pairs of book-lungs (Fig. 129).

The characters pre-
sented by the chelicerae
are distinctive; but the
number of the book-
lungs is not quite so, for
in one small family, the
Hypochilidae, belonging
to the other superfamily,
two pairs of book-lungs
are present.

The Avicularioidea
includes two families,
the Aviculariidae and the
Atypidae; the Avicula-
riidae is well represented
in our fauna, nearly
two score species hav-
ing been described from
the southern and western
portions of the United
States. But of the Atypidae only two species have been found
in this country.

Fig. 212. PEDIPALP OI EURYI'ELMA

Family AVICULARIID^ (A-vic-u-la-ri'i-dae)

7 /'c Typical Tarantulas

The typical tarantulas are distinguished from all other
spiders by the form of the coxa of the pedipalps, which resembles
the coxae of the legs in lacking a distinct endite. In the next
family, the Atypidae, and in the true spiders, the Argiopoidea,
the coxa bears a plate, the endite, which is the crushing part of
the organ. It should be stated, however, that in a few of the
typical tarantulas the coxa of the pedipalps bears a small lobe
which is really a small endite (Fig. 212).

The bulb of the palpus of the male is comparatively simple
in structure (Fig. 213); it is described in an earlier chapter (p. 109).

229

Superfamlly Avicularioidea

BULB OF PALPUS
OF THE MALE OF ERYPELMA

In nearly all of our representatives of the family, all except
/ftypoides and Hexura, there are only four spinnerets; and in the
greater number, all except the last two subfamilies, the furrow

of the chelicerae is well-
marked, being limited by a
row of teeth on each side or
by a row of teeth on one side
and a keel furnished with a
brush of hairs on the other.
It is only in the South
■a. d or in the Far West that the
members of this family are
found living in our terri-
tory. But certain species
are of such great size that
they attract attention where-
ever they occur, are captured as curiosities, and find their way
into almost all collections of animals. The nests of certain
other species, the trap-door spiders, are also commonly found in
collections.

As regards their habits the American species whose ways have
been observed fall into three groups:

In the first of these groups are placed those that either choose
any kind of a retreat, living under stones or rubbish on the ground
and in the cracks of trees, or dig a very simple cell, which [they
line with a slight web of silk. To this group belong the bird-
spiders, the subfamily Aviculariinae.

The second group comprises the burrowing species, which
dig tunnels in the ground of variable form and either closed or
not closed by a lid. Two subfamilies are included in this group,
the trap-door spiders, subfamily Ctenizinae, and the folding -
door tarantulas, subfamily Brachybothriinae.

The third group includes those tarantulas that spin webs
resembling those of the grass-spider, the funnel-web tarantulas,
subfamily Diplurinae.

Regarding the habits of the subfamily Hexurinae, we know
nothing.

Less than forty species have been described from our fauna,
and there is considerable doubt regarding the specific distinctness
of some of the forms described. But, on the other hand, as

230

Superfamily Avicularioides.

these spiders live in regions that have been explored compara-
tively little, and as many of them are perfectly concealed in their
nests during the day time, doubtless many other species remain
to be discovered.

Our known species represent five subfamilies; these can be
separated by the following table.

TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES OF THE AVICULARIID/E

A. Postabdomen situated immediately above the spinnerets;
furrow of the chelicerae well-marked; median furrow of
the thorax transverse or elliptic.
B. Tarsi of legs not furnished with a bundle of terminal
tenent hairs; scopulae often wanting; third claw almost
always well-developed.
C. Chelicerae furnished with a rake; hind spinnerets
rather short and with the last segment short and
obtuse. P. 231. Ctenizin^

CC. Rake of the chelicerae wanting; hind spinnerets long
and with the last segment slender. P. 247.

Diplurin^e

BB. Tarsi of legs furnished with scopulae and with a bundle

of terminal tenent hairs- third claw wanting or obsolete.

P. 241. Aviculariin^e

AA. Postabdomen situated a considerable distance above the

spinnerets; furrow of the chelicerae indistinct; median

furrow of the thorax longitudinal.

B. Chelicerae furnished with a rake. P. 248.

BRACHYBOTHRIINy'E

BB. Rake of the chelicerae wanting. P. 251. Hexurin/E
Subfamily CTENIZINiE (Cten-i-zi'nae)

The Trap-door Spiders

The trap-door spiders resemble the tarantulas of the two
following subfamilies in having the postabdomen situated imme-
diately above the spinnerets, in that the furrow of the chelicerae
is well-marked, and in that the median furrow of the thorax is
transverse or elliptic. They are distinguished from the bird-
spiders in lacking a bundle of terminal tenent hairs on the tarsi

231

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Fig. 214. CHELICERAOF PACHY-
LOMERUS SHOWNG THE RAKE

and in almost always having the third claw well-developed; and
they differ from the web-making tarantulas in having the chelicera?

furnished with a rake (Fig. 214).

The lack of the bundle of termi-
nal tenent hairs on the tarsi is cor-
related with the sedentary habits
of these spiders; the possession of
a third claw aids them in climbing
up the sheet of silk with which they
line their burrows; and the rake
of the cheliceras serves to dislocate
the earth, when digging their bur-
rows, and to make it into a ball,
which they throw up with their hind
legs; these are strong and armed
with strong spines.
To this subfamily belong the larger number of the taran-
tulas that have attracted attention on account of their architec-
tural skill. They dig tunnels in the ground, which, in most
cases, are closed with a hinged lid (Fig. 215); this fact has sug-
gested the popular name of trap-door spiders, which is applied
to them.

After the tunnel is dug, the wall is usually coated with a
coat formed of earth and saliva. Inside of this wall there is spun
a layer of silk, which sometimes hangs free, but usually adheres
to the earth. Sometimes the silken lining is restricted to the
upper portion of the tunnel.

The wall of the tunnel is usually
so firm, perhaps owing to the earth
being cemented in some way, that
the nest retains its form when the
surrounding soil is dug away.

Different types of nest are made
by the different species. In a few
cases the mouth of the tunnel is open;
but as a rule it is closed by a lid or
door. The nests also differ in three

other particulars: first, the tunnel may be either simple or
branched; second, the door of a closed nest may be a simple
flap of silk and dirt, the wafer type (Fig. 213), or it may be a

Fig. 215. ENTRANCE TO
TUNNEL OF TRAP-DOOR
SPIDER, THE WAFER TYPE

232

Fig. 216. ENTRANCE TO TUNNEL

OK TRAP-DOOR SPIDER, THE

CORK TYPE

Superfamily Avicularioidea

thick stopple, with its edges accurately bevelled to fit the
bevelled opening of the tunnel, the cork type (Fig. 216); and
third, there may be either one or two doors to the nest, the
single door type and the double
door type. The second door, when
there are two, is some distance
below the first door.

In all cases the door is pro-
vided on one side with a hinge
which is merely a continuation of
the wall of the tube into the layer
of silk that forms the foundation
of the door.

The inner surface of the door
presents the same appearance as
the silken lining of the tube, being
a firm layer of silk; but the outer surface of the door is cov-
ered with earth and made to simulate in a very perfect manner
the surface of the surrounding soil, so that, when the door is
closed, very careful observation is necessary to detect the
presence of the nest. In those cases in which the nest is built in

soil covered with moss,
moss is planted by the
spider upon the door of
the nest. Many nests of
this kind are figured by
Moggridge ('73-74); and
I have some before me as
1 write, which were taken
in California (Fig. 217);
these are old specimens,
and the moss is dry and
withered so that it is com-
paratively inconspicuous.
The wafer door and
the cork door represent
two quite distinct types. In the wafer type the door consists
of a single layer of silk covered with soil: the edge of the door,
which is thin, merely overlaps the edge of the tunnel; and there
are no holes in the lining of the door for the reception of claws

*?3»S -■■-.:■ ■ -

Fig. 217. ENTRANCE COVERED WITH MOSS

233

Superfamily Avicularioidea

In the cork type, the door is thick, and its edge is bevelled
so as to fit accurately the bevelled opening of the tunnel (Fig.
216). Near the edge of the inner surface of the door, at the
point farthest from the hinge, there are two holes; these are to
receive the claws of the chelicerae when the spider is holding the
door closed; and, according to the observations of Moggridge,
the door in the cork type consists of many layers of silk each
furnished with a sloping rim of earth. He represents fourteen
layers of silk and earth which went to make a single cork door
examined by him. These layers were successively larger and larger
beginning with the innermost, and he believes that the latter
constituted the first door the spider ever made, and that the
consecutive layers mark successive stages in the enlargement
of the nest. His observations were made on the nest of a French

Fig. 218. DIFFERENT TYPES OF NESTS OF TRAP-DOOR SPIDERS (after Moggridge)

species. I have been unable to satisfy myself that the same
thing is true of the door of our California species. I have, how-
ever, taken apart only the door of a single nest.

Figure 218, which is copied from Moggridge C74), repre-
sents the different types of nests of the trap-door spiders of this
subfamily; another type, described later, is made by a member
of the Brachybothriinae. At a is represented the nest of a French
species of Atypus, one of the Atypidae; this is included here merely
for contrast; b represents the cork type of nest; Moggridge be-
lieved that in this type the tunnel is always simple, but Atkin-
son ('86) describes a branched nest with a door of the cork type.

234

Superfamily Avicularioidea

The remaining figures illustrate the different forms of nests that
have the door of the wafer type as follows: c, a single-door, un-
branched wafer nest; d, a single-door, branched wafer nest; e,
a double-door, unbranched wafer nest, and ei, the lower door
of the same; and/, g, and gi, three double-door, branched wafer
nests, / and g differing in the form of the second door, shown at
//, and g2.

In the case of several of our genera, the habits are unknown;
the species having been described from specimens that were
collected without observations being made on their habits.
Students living in the regions where these spiders occur have
excellent opportunities for adding to our knowledge of the ways
of these remarkable creatures.

The described species of our fauna represent eight genera.
These can be separated by the following table.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE CTENIZIN^E

■

A. Tibia of the third pair of legs with a deep depression in the
basal part of the upper surface. P. 236. Pachylomerus
AA. Tibia of the third pair of legs normal.

B. Abdomen truncate at the end, the end discoidal. P. 2 $7.

Cyclocosmia
BB. Abdomen normal, the caudal end rounded.

C. Tarsi of females without a scopula, but with strong
spine; claws armed with a few teeth, which are in a
single series. P. 238. Bothriocyrtum

CC. At least the fore tarsi with a scopula, but sometimes
poorly developed in the males; claws frequently armed
with numerous teeth, which are frequently in two
series. P. 238.
D. Posterior sigilla large, near together, and widely
distant from the margin of the sternum.
E. Chelicerae furnished on the inside, at the apex,
with a blunt and toothed process. Claws, at
least the anterior ones, unidentate at base.
P. 239. Myrmeciophila

EE. Cheliceras rounded at the apex, or with the in-
terior angle slightly convex, not produced, claws
pluridentate. P. 240. Eutychides

235

Superfamily Avicularioidea

DD. Posterior sigilla small or of moderate size and
much farther from each other than from the margin
of the sternum.
E. Anterior tarsi and metatarsi short, equal; meta-
tarsi unarmed except by apical spines. P. 240.

Amblyocarenum

EE. Anterior metatarsi longer than the tarsi and armed

below with many spines. P. 241 Aptostichus

Genus PACHYLOMERUS (Pach-y-lom'e-rus)

As indicated in the table above, this genus differs from the
other genera of this subfamily by the presence of a deep de-
pression in the basal
part of the upper sur-
face of the tibia of
the third pair of legs
(Fig. 219). This de-
pression is smooth,
and of a deeper colour
than the remainder of
the segment; on each
side of this depression

Fig. 219. TERMINAL PORTION OF THE THIRD tL„r. • „ nsrrrvw

LEG OF PACHYLOMERUS there 1S H narrOW

membranous line.
The figure represents the tibia of a female. In the only male that
1 have seen the depression in this segment is not so marked as in
the female; and the membranous line is wanting.

The representatives of this genus are common in the warmer
parts of the United States. Their burrows are furnished with
doors of the wafer type. Several species have been described
from the southern Atlantic States, one from Arizona, and one
from California; but as yet insufficient material has been studied
to make it possible to indicate with any degree of certainty the
distinctive characteristics of the species.

Pachylomerus audouinii (P. au-dou-in'i-i). — The most com-
mon species of Pachylomerus in the southeastern part of our terri-
tory is believed to be the one described by Lucas in 1837 under
this specific name. It is a large species, the body of the adult
measuring one and one third inches in length.

236

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Pachylomerus turris (P. tur'ris). — Only the female of this
species has been observed. It is smaller than the preceding
species; the body measures nearly three fourths inch in length.
The anterior row of eyes is nearly or quite as long as the posterior
row, the four lateral eyes forming a rectangle. A specimen which
1 collected in Florida made an egg-sac, thus showing that it was an
adult. The egg-sac was made near the bottom of the tunnel.

Pachylomerus theveneti (P. thev-e-ne'ti). — This is the only
species of Pachylomerus as yet described from the Pacific Coast.
The female is about three fourths inch in length. The lateral
eyes of each side are nearly contiguous. In the specimen de-
scribed the labium was armed at the tip with a single series of
six or seven spines. But a study of our Eastern forms shows that
the armature of the labium varies greatly in different individu-
als of the same species.

This is the Hebestatis theveneti of Simon.

Genus CYCLOCOSMIA (Cy-clo-cos'mi-a)

There are two genera of tarantulas, one, Chorifops, represent-
ed by a single species found in Mexico, and the other, Cyclocos-
mia, represented by two species,
one from China and one from
the southern United States,
that differ from all others by
the remarkable form of the
abdomen, the caudal end of
which is truncate and discoidal
(Fig. 221). In Cyclocosmia the Fig. 22I. cyclocosmia truncata
tibia of the third pair of legs

lacks the depression characteristic of the two preceding genera,
and the eyes are not widely separated.

Only females of this genus have been described. It is quite
possible that the males do not have the abdomen truncate.

Cyclocosmia truncata (C. trun-ca'ta). — I have not seen this
species; and can, therefore, only copy the figures and observa-
tions of Hentz, who described the species. He states that the
abdomen is cylindrical, suddenly truncated at the end. and callous
at that place, with concentric grooves and six circular impres-
sions (Fig. 221).

2 37

Superfamily Avicularioidea

As to the habits of the species Hentz adds the following:
"This spider dwells ... in cylindrical cavities in the
earth. Though many specimens were found, I never saw
a lid. . . . The very singular formation of its abdo-
men, which is as hard as leather behind, and which forms
a perfect circle, induces me to believe that it closes with
that part, its dwelling, instead of with a lid, when in
danger."

The observations of Hentz were made in Alabama. Al-
though he states that he found many specimens, it is
evidently a rare species now. Mr. N. Banks writes me that
he has a single female in his collection. This was taken in
Louisiana.

Genus BOTHRIOCYRTUM (Both-ri-o-cyr'tum)

The tibia of the third legs lacks the depression found in
Pachylomerus; the tarsi of the first and second pairs of legs are
not scopulate, but are furnished with strong spines; the tarsal
claws are armed with but few teeth, in most cases with a single
tooth, where there are more than one they are in a single series.
The clypeus is nearly horizontal, and is twice as broad as the trans-
verse diameter of the anterior lateral eyes.

Only two species of this genus have been described; one
of them is the common California species, the other is a Mexican
species which perhaps also occurs in our fauna.

The Common Californian Trap-door Spider, Bothriocyrtum
californicum (B. cal-i-for'ni-cum). — The adult female measures
one and one sixth inches in length. When alive the general colour
of the whole spider is a dark blackish chocolate brown, the legs
and cephalothorax being darker than the abdomen. In alcohol,
the cephalothorax is deep reddish yellow brown; and the abdomen
a dull yellowish brown colour. The sternum is not marked by
sigilla. The anterior tarsi have only a single tooth at the base,
those of the posterior tarsi have at the base four slender and
recurved teeth of which the second and the fourth are longer
than the others.

This is the species whose nest is most often seen in collections.
The nest is an unbranched tube furnished with a single door of
the cork type.

238

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Genus MYRMECIOPHILA (Myr-mec-i-oph'i-la)

In this and in the following genera of this subfamily the fore
tarsi at least are furnished with a scopula, although sometimes
in the case of males it is not dense. In this genus and in the
following the posterior sigilla are large, near together, and widely

distant from the margin of the sternum. In this

genus

the

chelicerae are furnished on the inside, at the apex, with a blunt
and toothed process. The claws, at least the anterior ones, are
furnished with a single tooth at the base.

Two species have been described from the United States.

Myrmeciophila fluviatilis (M. flu-vi-at'i-lis). — The body
of the female measures two thirds inch in length. The cephalo-
thorax is dull olive with a rufous tinge; the abdomen, dull yellow-
ish; there is a broad longitudinal
dorsal band of delicate brown,
from which branch on each side
seven bands of the same colour,
extending down midway of the
abdomen. In living specimens
the femora are delicate light
olive colour.

The male of this species has
not been described. 1 collected,
at Austin, Tex., a male spider
that belongs to this genus and
which may be the male of this
species. It is represented by
Fig. 222. In alcohol, the cepha-
lothorax and appendages are
light yellowish, and clothed
with black hairs and spines; the abdomen is dirty white ob-
scurely marked by a darker folium from which extend bands,
in the female of this species. The metatarsus of the first pair of
legs is bent, slender at the base, and enlarged at the tip.

The original description of this species was published bj
Hentz, who collected it in Alabama. Later Atkinson ('86)
described it under the specific name foliata, and gave the fullest
account yet published of its habits.

Fig. 222.

MYRMECIOPHILA FLUVIATI-
LIS, MALE

-2 39

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Professor Atkinson studied the species in North Carolina.
According to his observations the nest is of the cork door type,
and the tunnel may be either simple or branched. It is sometimes
made within an ants' nest; in which case the spider probably
feeds upon the ants.

Myrmeciopbila atkinsoni (M. at-kin-son'i). — The second
species of this genus was found in Virginia. It closely resembles
the preceding; but differs in having the four anterior eyes closer
together, in the arrangement of the spines on the legs, and in
having the claws of the posterior tarsi armed with two teeth
at the base.

Genus EUTYCH1DES (Eu-tych'i-des)

This genus differs from the preceding in that the interior apical
angle of the chelicera? is rounded or slightly convex, and in that the
claws of the tarsi are furnished with several teeth near the base.

Only one species has been found within the limits of the
United States.

Eutychides versicolor (E. ver-sic'o-lor). — The adult female
measures a little more than one inch in length; the male is one
half as long. The endite of the pedipalp is armed with small
spines which are scattered from the base to the apex.

This species has been recently studied by Mr. C. P. Smith
('08) in California. He states that it is the most common trap-
door spider of the Santa Clara Valley, and of the foothills and
canons on either side. The burrow is long, narrow, branched,
and furnished with a thin trap-door of the wafer type.

Genus AMBLYOCARENUM (Am-bly-o-ca-re'num)

The fore tarsi are scopulate; the posterior sigilla are small
and much farther from each other than from the margin of the
sternum; the teeth of the rake of the chelicerae are numerous and
irregular; the anterior tarsi and metatarsi are short, robust,
and nearly equal in length; the metatarsi are unarmed except
by the apical spines.

Only one species has been found in our fauna.

Amblyocarenum talpa (A. tal'pa). — I have not seen this
species. It was described from a female, which was three fourths
inch in length. It occurs in California. This was first described

240

Superfamily Avicularioidea

as Cyrtauchenius talpa; but the genus Cyrtauchenius has been
restricted by Simon to certain species found in Africa.

Genus APTOSTICHUS (Ap-tos'ti-chus)

This genus is closely allied to the preceding; but it differs
in that the anterior metatarsi are longer than the tarsi and armed
below with many spines.

Three species have been described; all are from California.

Aptostichus atomarius (A. at-o-ma'ri-us).— - The body of
the female is a little more than one half inch in length. The
cephalothorax is dull reddish yellow, with a pale yellow pubescens;
the cervical groove is nearly straight. The abdomen is dull
yellow, with an ashy yellow pubescens.

Aptostichus dathratus (A. cla-thra'tus). — The body of the
female is one half inch in length. The cephalothorax is a dull dark
chestnut and nearly glabrous; the cervical groove is procurved.
The abdomen is dark bluish in front and brick coloured behind.

Aptostichus stanjordianus. — The adult female measures
from two fifths inch to a little more than one inch in length.
The cephalothorax is tawny; the abdomen is yellowish brown,
marked above with a median series of dark brown blotches, and
lateral series of short linear spots. The male is unknown.

This species, recently described by Mr. C. P. Smith, is found
in California. It makes a short burrow furnished with a trap-
door.

Subfamily AVICULARIINiE (A-vic-u-lar-i-i'nae)

The bird-spiders resemble the preceding and the following
subfamily in having the postabdomen situated immediately
above the spinnerets, in that the furrow of the chelicerae is well-
marked and in that the median furrow of the thorax is transverse
or elliptic; but they differ from both of these subfamilies in having
the tarsi of the legs furnished with a bundle of terminal tenent
hairs and in having the third claw wanting or obsolete.

These are running tarantulas; a fact that might be inferred
from the armature of their tarsi; which are furnished with scopulae
and terminal tenent hairs.

To this subfamily belong the larger tarantulas, those that
are most feared on account of their size. In South America there
is a species having a body two inches in length, and whose legs

241

Superfamily Avicularioidea

expand more than seven inches. The habits of this spider were
described by Madam Merian two hundred years ago. She stated
that it destroyed small birds; this suggested the name of the
typical genus, Avicularia, and also the popular name Bird-spiders.
(See p. 185, 186.)

The Aviculariinae rarely dig true burrows; but make use of
natural cavities in the ground or in trunks of trees. Correlated
with this fact is the absence of a rake of the chelicerae. Simon
states that they line the cavities in which they live with a close,
but light and transparent web, which is always less extended
than that of the Diplurinae, and is without a tube-shaped retreat.
They are nocturnal, watching in the evening for their prey, which
consists almost always of large beetles. Simon also states that
their eggs are numerous, and are enveloped in a cocoon of white
tissue, which certain species carry in the chelicerae till the young
emerge.

Our known species represent four genera, which can be sep-
arated by the following table.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE AVICULARIIN^E

A. Tibiae and metatarsi of the third and fourth pairs of legs

with very few spines.

B. Anterior eyes subequal, in a very strongly procurved

line; anterior tibia of male furnished with one spur

at the apex. P. 246. Avicularia

BB. Anterior eyes unequal, median eyes nearly twice as large

as the lateral; anterior eyes in a slightly procurved or

nearly straight line; anterior tibia of male with two spurs

at the apex. P. 246. Tapinauchenius

AA. Tibiae and metatarsi of the third and fourth pairs of legs

with many spines.

B. Metatarsus of the fore legs thickly scopulate to the base

and usually without basal spines. P. 243. Eurypelma

BB. Metatarsus of the fore legs with scopula not reaching

the base; with basal spines. P. 242. Rhechostica

Genus RHECHOSTICA (Rhe-chos'ti-ca)

The scopulae of the anterior metatarsi do not reach the base
of the segment, covering only about two thirds of the segment;

242

Superfamily Avicularioidea

the base of the anterior metatarsi is armed with spines; the apex
of the posterior metatarsi is minutely scopulate; the posterior
median eyes are broadly removed from the anterior median and
are much smaller.

Only one species has been described.

Rhechostica texense (R. tex-en'se).— The male is black and
measures one and one half inches in length; the four anterior
eyes are nearly equal in size; the posterior median eyes are evi-
dently smaller than the anterior median, and are barely separated
from the posterior lateral eyes.

The female has not been described.

Nothing is known of the habits of the species; it was described
from specimens collected in Texas.

Genus EURYPELMA (Eu-ryp'el-ma)

The tibia? and metatarsi of the third and fourth pairs of legs
are armed with many spines. The metatarsi of the fore legs
are thickly scopulate to the base and are usually without
spines.

To this group belong the largest spiders that occur within
the limits of our fauna. They are the tarantulas which, in the
South and the West, most often attract attention on account
of their size,
and which are
greatly feared
on account of
the supposed
deadly nature of
their bite. One
of them is rep-
resented natural
size by Fig. 224.

They are nocturnal, hiding during the day in the cracks of trees,
under logs, stones, stumps, or other rubbish, and coming forth
in the evening and lying in wait for their prey.

Several species have been described from the United States;
but in most cases the descriptions have been based on an ex-
amination of but one sex. In fact, notwithstanding the large
size of these spiders and their abundance in the regions where

Fig. 224. EURYPELMA HEXTZII

243

Superfamily Avicularioidea

they occur, it is not possible in the present state of our knowledge
to accurately define the species.

The following table, which is a modification of one published
by Simon, will aid in the separation of our better known species:

A. With a large velvety brown spot on the otherwise light-
coloured abdomen. E. steindacbneri
AA. Abdomen not light with a brown spot.

B. Anterior metatarsus shorter than the tibia. All tarsi
long, not much shorter than the anterior metatarsus,
the posterior only one third shorter. Adults small,
the male measuring only four fifths inch in length;
body entirely black. E. marxi

BB. Anterior metatarsus as long as or longer than the tibia.
Anterior tarsus about one third shorter than the meta-
tarsus, posterior not more than half as long. Adults
large.
C. Anterior median eyes hardly more remote from each
other than from the lateral eyes and the space be-
tween the lateral eyes not much less than the diameter
of an eye. Posterior median eyes round. E. helluo
CC. Anterior median eyes evidently more remote from each
other than from the lateral eyes and the space between
the lateral eyes barely half the diameter of an eye.
Posterior median eyes elongate and straight, not
oblique.
D. Hairs silky olivaceous. Legs long. Anterior metatar-
sus curved and evidently longer than the tibia.
Posterior metatarsus more than twice as long as
the tarsus. E. rusticum

DD. Hairs ferruginous. Legs shorter. Anterior meta-
tarsus about as long as the tibia. Posterior meta-
tarsus about twice as long as the tarsus.
E. Posterior median eyes evidently smaller than
the lateral eyes; both median and lateral
elongate. Tibia of the pedipalp usually armed
on the inside with five or six reddish spines.

E. calijornicum

EE. Posterior median eyes elongate, lateral subrotund

and not larger than the posterior median. Tibia

244

Superfamily Avicularioidea

of the pedipalp armed on the inside with a sub-
basal spine, two submedian spines, and an apical
spine. . E. hent^i

EurypeJma steindacbneri (E. stein-dach'ner-i). — This is the
most easily recognized of all of our tarantulas, being characterized
by a large velvety brown spot on the otherwise light-coloured ab-
domen. It is a large species, the adult measuring from one
and one half to two inches in length. There are specimens of
both sexes in the collection of Cornell University, and in both
the brown spot is present. It is evident, therefore, that what
was described by Ausserer as the female of this species belongs
to some other species, probably to E.
californicum. The species is widely
distributed in the Southwest. Fig-
ure 225 is of a young individual which
I collected in Texas.

Eurypelma marxi (E. mar'xi). —
This species can be distinguished from
our other species of Eurypelma by its
comparatively small size; the adult
measuring only about four fifths inch
in length, and the body is entirely
black. The tibia of the pedipalp is
armed on the inside with only two
submedian spines. This species is
found in the Southwest.

Eurypelma belluo (E. hel'lu-o).—
This is our largest species, the male measuring two inches in
length. The distinctive characteristics are given in the table
above. It occurs in the Southwest.

EurypeJma rusticum (E. rus'ti-cum). — See table above for
distinctive characteristics. This species inhabits the Southwest.

Eurypelma californicum (E. cal-i-for'ni-cum). — This is the
most common of the large tarantulas found in California, Arizona,
and Texas. See table above for distinctive characteristics.

Eurypelma hent{i (E. hent'zi). — This is one of the most
common tarantulas of the Southern and Southwestern States.
It can be distinguished from the preceding species by the charac-
teristics given in the table above.

Fig. 225.
EURYPELMA STEINDACHNERI

24S

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Genus AVICULARIA (A-vic-u-la'ri-a)

The group of eyes is barely one third wider than long; the
anterior eyes are quite small, nearly equal, and in a strongly
procurved line. The posterior sigilla are small and marginal.
The anterior tibia of the male is furnished with one spur at the
apex.

Avicularia californica (A. cal-i-for'ni-ca). — The cephalo-
thorax is a little more than one inch in length and two thirds inch
in width. The cephalothorax is densely clothed with yellowish
gray hair, rather paler on the sides and brighter in the middle;
on the anterior margin there is a fringe overhanging the chelicerae
of long, pale gray hairs with tawny tips. The abdomen is clothed
above with fine dark brown hair, and many long, recurved bristles
of a tawny colour with pale tips; the lower side of the abdomen is
clothed with black hair, and with long tawny bristles. The
endites and the furrow of the chelicerae bear long tawny bristles.

This is the only species of Avicularia found in our fauna.
It was described by Mr. Nathan Banks from several specimens
collected in the vicinity of San Diego, Cal.

Genus TAPINAUCHENIUS (Ta-pin-au-chen'i-us)

The group of eyes is at least twice as wide as long.
The anterior eyes are in a nearly straight line; and the anterior
median eyes are larger than the anterior lateral. The posterior
sigilla are quite large, ovate, and submarginal. The anterior
tibia of the male is furnished with two spurs at the apex.

Two species have been found in the Southwest.

Tapinauchenius cmulescens (T. cae-ru-les'cens). — This species
was described by Simon from an immature female which measured
four fifths inch in length. The cephalothorax is densely clothed
with very long, silky, dark blue hairs; and the abdomen, which
was badly rubbed in the specimen described, is silky blue pubes-
cent above with a few long, yellow hairs, and is black below.

The specimen was collected at Fort Sill, Indian Territory.

Tapinauchenius texensis (T. tex-en'sis). — This species, like
the preceding, was described from an immature female. The
specimen measured one inch in length. The cephalothorax
is densely clothed with yellow hairs; and the abdomen, badly

246

Superfamily Avicularioidea

rubbed, with close, long dark hairs, and marked with an obscure
longitudinal, median stripe and a transverse zone. The abdomen
is black below.

The specimen was from Eagle Pass, Tex.

Subfamily DIPLURIN^ (Dip-lu-ri'nae)
The Funnel-web Tarantulas

The funnel-web tarantulas resemble the two preceding
families in having the postabdomen situated immediately above
the spinnerets and in having the furrow of the cheliceras well-
marked. They differ from the bird-spiders in having the tarsi
furnished with a third claw instead of a bundle of terminal tenent
hairs; and from the trap-door spiders in the absence of the rake
of the chelicerae.

The habits of our species have not been published; but cer-
tain exotic forms spin large webs of close, cloth-like tissue, ter-
minated by a funnel, like the webs of the grass spider. And 1
found at Austin, Tex., the young of a species of Evagrus common
under stones, resting in a sheet web. The presence of the third
claw of the tarsus shows that they live upon webs or sheets of
silk; and the absence of the rake of the cheliceraa indicates that
they are not burrowing in their habits.

Only three species have been described from our fauna;
these represent two genera.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE DIPLURIN/E

A. Anterior tarsi and metatarsi more or less scopulate; paired

claws with a double series of teeth; space between the

fore spinnerets twice the width of the spinnerets; tarsi

unarmed. Brachythele

AA. Tarsi not at all scopulate; paired claws with a single series

of teeth; space between the fore spinnerets at least four

times the width of the spinnerets; posterior tarsi at least

spined. Evagrus

Genus BRACHYTHELE (Brach-y-the'lej

The anterior eyes are of equal size or the anterior median
are a little smaller than the anterior lateral. I he metatarsi of

^47

Superfamily Avicularioidea

the first and second pairs of legs are scopulate all the way to the
base. Other characteristics are given in the table above.

Two species have been described.

Bracbythele theveneti (B. thev-e-ne'ti). — This species was
collected at Mariposa, Cal. The male measures about one
half inch in length. It differs from the following species in
having the four anterior eyes nearly equal in size.

Brachythele longitarsis (B. lon-gi-tar'sis). — This species is
widely distributed in the Far West, being found from Idaho to
Lower California. The adult female measures from one inch to
nearly two inches in length; the male is somewhat smaller. The
anterior median eyes are about one third smaller than the anterior
lateral.

This species digs a deep burrow, and lines only the upper
fourth or less with silk.

Genus EVAGRUS (E-va'grus)

The anterior lateral eyes are much larger than the anterior
median; and the posterior median eyes are distinctly larger than
the anterior median. The furrow of the chelicerae is furnished
with teeth only on the inner margin. In the male the tibia of
the second pair of legs is furnished at the base with a large
apophysis armed with spines. The following is our only species.

Evagrus rubrigularis (E. ru-bri-gu-la'ris). — The female meas-
ures about two thirds inch in length, and is entirely black. The
species was described from a poorly preserved specimen col-
lected in Idaho.

Subfamily BRACHYBOTHRIINiE (Brach-y-both-ri-i'nae)

The Folding-door Tarantulas

There are two small subfamilies of tarantulas, this and the
following one, that differ from the other typical tarantulas and
agree with the family Atypidae, in having the postabdomen
situated a considerable distance above the spinnerets; and in
that the furrow of the chelicerae is indistinct. But they agree
with the other typical tarantulas in not possessing distinct
endites.

These two subfamilies can be distinguished by the presence

248

Superfamily Avicularioidea

or absence of the rake of the chelicerae; it being present in the
Brachybothriinas and absent in the Hexurinas.

In the possession of a rake of the chelicerae the Brachyboth-
riinas spiders resemble the Ctenizinas or trap-door spiders; and
this resemblance is correlated with a striking resemblance in
habits. The Brachybothriinas excavate tunnels in the earth
and like the Ctenizinas close their tunnels with a door. But in
the case of the single species whose habits have been carefully
described this door consists of two semicircular parts which
meet on the middle line of the opening, like a pair of folding
doors. It may be that this habit is not shared by other members
of the subfamily; but until more is known of their habits the
Brachybothriinas may be designated popularly as the folding-
door tarantulas.

This subfamily includes only three genera; all of which are
restricted to our fauna.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE BRACHYBOTHRIINyE

A. With only four spinnerets. P. 249. Brachybothrium

AA. With six spinnerets.

B. Median furrow of the thorax longitudinal; male with-
out a conductor of the embolus, pedipalps, half as long
as first legs. P. 250. Atypoides

BB. Median furrow of the thorax round; male with a con-
ductor of the embolus and with pedipalps as long as first
legs, P. 251. Aliatypus

Genus BRACHYBOTHRIUM (Brach-y-both'ri-um)

The members of this genus can be easily recognized by the
possession of the family characteristics given above and the fact
that they have only four spinnerets.

Several forms belonging to this genus have been described
as distinct species; but with our present lack of knowledge of the
group it is impossible to state how many of these so-called species
are valid. Five are enumerated in Banks' Catalogue. Here
too probably belongs the Antrodicetus unicolor of this Catalogue.

An account of the habits of a species belonging to this genus,
is published by Atkinson ('86) under the name Nidivalvata marxii.

249

Superfamily Avicularioidea

Professor Atkinson's observations were made at Chapel Hill,
N. C, and are in part as follows:

'This species begins the excavation of its tube by parting
the earth from a central point with its anterior legs and palpi
turning around at the same time so as to push the earth on all
sides. It works with exceeding rapidity." "When beginning
the nest in a patch of moss the spider will dive down into the
moss and begin turning rapidly in all directions, at the same time
spinning threads to fasten together the pieces of moss around
and over it. I have watched four different ones make the nest,
two beginning in moss which 1 had placed over the earth, and
two beginning in soil. Two of these I had make a nest several
times, and thus far every one has first entirely closed the entrance
to the tube by building a sort of dome over it. Later, in one
case a week, cutting through this and making the folding-door.
Usually in making the dome, earth is placed on and about the
edge of the tube, occasionally applying viscid liquid and spinning
threads over it. Then the spider would, with its anterior legs
and palpi pull the edge over the tube. This operation would be
repeated until the dome was complete. When moss is convenient
the door is made almost entirely of moss and silk; each door is a
surface of a half circle, is hung by a semicircular hinge, and the two
meet, when closed, in a straight line over the middle of the hole."
A specimen of Brachybothrium, which Mr. Banks determines
as "apparently B. accentuatum," was presented to me by Mr.
Paul Hayhurst, who collected it at Columbia, Mo. It was
found in a burrow sixteen inches deep; this burrow was very much
like that of a large tiger beetle larva, and was without a lid. The
specimen is a female, and measures nine sixteenths inch in
length.

Genus ATYPOI DES (At-y-poi'des)

In this genus there are three pairs of spinnerets; the median
furrow of the thorax is longitudinal; the palpus of the male is
without a conductor of the embolus; and the pedipalps of the
male are only half as long as the first legs.

Only the following species is known:

Atypoides riversi (A. riv'er-si). — The adult male measures
one half inch in length. The cephalothorax is greenish brown;
the abdomen, dull purplish brown. The chelicerae have an extra-

250

Superfamily Avicularioidea

ordinary appearance due to the presence of a long, projecting
curved apophysis at the base. This is cylindrical, obtusely pointed,
and densely clothed at and near its extremity, above and on the
sides, with long coarse bristly black hairs.

The female resembles the male in colour. But instead of the
long projection on the cheliceras, there is on each a simple, strong,
subconical prominence directed a little backward.

This species was described by Rev. O. P. Cambridge from
specimens collected at Berkeley, Cal. by Mr. J. J. Rivers.
It is stated that it tunnels in banks mostly by streams, forming
a tubular projection above ground of any material at hand,
woven up with silk, making no trap-door, but closing the aperture
at times.

Genus ALIATYPUS (Al-i-at'y-pus)

As in the preceding genus, there are three pairs of spinnerets;
but the median furrow of the thorax is a rounded pit; the palpus
of the male is furnished with a conductor of the embolus, and
the pedipalps of the male are as long as the first legs.

Aliatypus calif ornicus (A. cal-i-for'ni-cus).— - The body
measures about one half inch in length. The cephalothorax and
legs are pale; the abdomen brownish or grayish with theventerlight.

This species has been recently studied by Mr. C. P. Smith,
at Stanford University. In his account (Smith, '08), he states
that the spider is found in the foothills and mountains on each
side of the Santa Clara Valley. The burrow is comparatively
long, simple, with a simple trap-door.

Subfamily HEXURIN^E (Hex-u-ri'nae)

The characteristics of this subfamily have been given in the
discussion of the preceding subfamily. Nothing is known of the
habits of these spiders; but the absence of the rake of the chelic-
erae indicates that they do not tunnel in the ground.

Only two genera are known, each represented by a single
species; one of these is from the Pacific Coast of the United States,
the other from Argentina.

1 ov

Genus HEXURA (Hex-u'ra)

The median furrow of the cephalothorax is longitudinal
but broad and short. There are three pairs of spinnerets. The

251

Superfamily Avicularioidea

group of eyes is twice as wide as long; the anterior median eyes
are situated in the middle of the group and are very small com-
pared with the other eyes.

Hexura picea (H. pic'e-a). — The body measures a little
more than one fourth inch in length. The chelicerae are long
and project forward in a prominent manner; the distal portion
is armed with spines in the male.

This species occurs in the State of Washington.

Family ATYPIDiE (A-typ'i-dae)

The Atypical Tarantulas

The tarantulas constituting the family of Atypidae are dis-
tinguished from the typical tarantulas, the Aviculariidas, by the
form of the coxa of the pedipalps, which bears a large conical
lobe, the endite (Fig. 226), and by the more complicated form

of the palpus of the male, which
approaches more nearly the form
seen in many true spiders. The
bulb of the palpus is of the

,.-<ym.

emb.--

Fig. 226.
PEDIPALP OF ATYPUS

con.

Fig. 227. TARSUS OF MALE OF
ATYPUS BICOLOR

intermediate type, the apical division consisting of two distinct
parts, an embolus and a conductor of the embolus (Fig. 227).
The presence of an endite does not, strictly speaking, dis-
tinguish the Atypidae from the typical tarantulas; for in some of
them thecoxa bears a small lobe (Fig. 2 12), which is really an endite;
but this lobe is very small compared with the endite of Atypus.

252

Superfamily Avicularioidea

The atypical tarantulas agree with the two preceding sub-
families in having the postabdomen situated a considerable
distance above the spinnerets; and in that the furrow of the
chelicerae is indistinct. They possess three pairs of spinnerets.

This is a small family, including only two genera of which
but one occurs in the New World.

Genus ATY PUS (At'y-pus)

The sternum bears four pairs of sigilla, of which the fourth
pair is much the larger. The hind spinnerets are four-jointed;
and much longer than the others. The labium is joined to
the sternum without any trace of a suture.

Only two species of this genus have been discovered in our
fauna.

The Purse-web spider, Atypus abbotii (A. ab-bot'i-i).— The
adult female measures one half inch or more in length. The
cephalothorax is brown with a very narrow black margin; and the
eye-space is dusky. The legs, pedipalps, and chelicerae are of
the same colour as the cephalothorax; but the claws of the chelic-
erae are dark. The abdomen is dark brown, with many paler
points and small spots. This is the Atypus milberti of Banks'
Catalogue. Both specific names were proposed by Walckenaer,
but abbotii occurs on the earlier page.

The rarity and the limited distribution of this spider is to be
regretted; for it is one with exceedingly interesting habits. Al-
though there are a few records of the collecting of Atypus in the
North, I know of its occurrence only in the more southern por-
tions of our territory, and have found it common in but one lo-
cality. This was near Lake City, Fla., where my attention was
called to it by Prof. H. Harold Hume. But Mr. Banks informs
me that there is a colony of it at his home near Washington, D. C.

The name purse-web spider, given to this species by Abbot,
who discovered it in Georgia one hundred years ago, is a happy
one for the web spun by it is a long silken tube, which resembles
in a striking way the silken purses of our grandmothers.

The purse-web spider lives in a tunnel in the ground, which
in those that 1 studied was almost invariably made at the base
of a tree; but sometimes they make their nests among herbaceous
plants. This tunnel is lined by a silken tube, which is extended

253

Superfamily Avicularioidea

vertically above the surface o. tne ground lor a considerable
distance against the side of the tree (Fig. 228).

In the case of the web of an adult spider the portion above
the ground measures nearly or quite one foot in length and from
one half to three fourths of an inch in width. The part below the
surface of the ground is shorter; in the specimens that I have
taken, it measures from four to six inches in length.

The outer surface of the purse-web is always protectively
coloured to a considerable extent. The colour varies from a light
gray to a very dark brown, almost black, corresponding to the
colour of the bark of the tree against which the tube is built.
The colour is due to a coat made of minute bits of bark, lichens,
and moss, which are evidently collected by the spider from the
trunk of the tree and fastened to the surface of the web. In the
case of a web built by a spider that 1 kept in confinement, the
web was partly covered with grains of sand taken from the
soil in the breeding cage, and there are usually grains of sand
on the webs built under natural conditions.

Notwithstanding their colouring, the tubes are easily seen
when one has learned their appearance. They look like a dead
stick or a section of a climbing vine; but present a very char-
acteristic appearance, owing to their being perfectly straight.
This is well shown in Fig. 204 which is from a photograph of
of a tree trunk bearing both a purse-web and a vine.

The purse-web is attached to the surface of the tree only by
its upper extremity, where it is flattened and somewhat expanded
into bands of threads by which it is fastened to the tree. Between
this point of attachment and its base, where it is firmly anchored
in the ground, it is stretched like a fiddle-string. The result
is that the walking of an insect over it causes it to vibrate; and
thus the presence of the insect is revealed to the waiting spider,
who waits in the tube below the surface of the ground with its
head upward ready to rush up the tube.

When the tube is disturbed by the passage of an insect over
it, the spider rushes to the point where the insect is, and biting
through the web, captures it. The web is then slit and the insect
pulled inside the tube. After the spider has sucked its prey dry,
the remnant is thrown out, the slit is repaired, and the spider
waits for another victim.

As a rule one finds only a single web ot an adult spider on a

254

{Photographed by 11. Harold Hume)
Fig. 228. PURSE-WEB OF ATVPUS ABBOTH ON DOGWOOD TREE, CORNUS FLORIDA,

AT LAKE CUV, 1LA.

255

Superfamily Avicularioidea

tree; but occasionally two or three tubes are built side by side
on the same tree. The young spiders are more gregarious. I
have seen as many as seven small tubes side by side near a large
tube. In selecting a place to build, these spiders show no pref-
erence for either the shady or sunny side of the tree.

The male is unknown to me. It was described by Hentz from
a solitary individual found on newly turned soil, at Northampton,
Mass. It is probable that, in the adult state at least, the males
lead a wandering life.

In the case of a French species of Atypus, A. piceus, that
part of the purse-web which is above ground rests horizontally
on the surface of the soil (Fig. 218, A). This nest forms an
interesting intermediate type between a simple silk-lined tunnel
with no external prolongation, such as is made by many spiders,
and the stretched and vibrating tube of our Atypus abbotii.

The Lost Atypus, Atypus bicolor (A. bi'co-lor). — This is a
black species with red legs; both the cephalothorax and the
abdomen are entirely black. It was described by Lucas in 1836,
with the statement that the specimen described belonged to the
Museum of Natural History of Paris, and that it came from North
America. The species was unknown in this country until
recently, when a single male was taken on Plummer's Island near
Washington, D. C. The tarsus of this individual is figured
above (Fig. 227). The specimen is in the collection of Mr
Banks, who loaned it to me for study.

256

CHAPTER VII:

Superfamily ARGIOPOIDEA (Ar-gi-o-poi'dc-a)
The True Spiders

The superfamily Argiopoidea includes all but two of the
thirty families of spiders represented in our fauna, that is all
except the tarantulas, which are found only in the South and in
the West.

In this superfamily the chelicerae project downward (ven-
trad) or obliquely downward (Fig. 229); the claw of the chelic-
erae moves more or less directly toward the middle plane of the
body; the pedipalps are furnished with endites (Fig. 230); and
except in the first family there is only a single pair of book-
lungs or none.

The sequence and grouping of the families adopted in this
work is shown in tabular form on pages 221-222.

Family HYPOCHILID^E (Hyp-o-chil'i-dae)

The Four-lunged True Spiders

In the mountains of eastern Tennessee and of neighbouring
states there lives a very remarkable spider, which was first de-
scribed by Dr. George Marx ('88), and for which the family
Hypochilidae was established (Fig. 231). Two other species
belonging to this family have been discovered, one in China, and
one in Tasmania. These are undoubtedly True Spiders, that is
they belong to the Superfamily Argiopoidea, but they differ from
all other members of this superfamily and agree with the
Tarantulas, the Avicularioidea, in the possession of two pairs of
book-lungs.

The second pair of book-lungs is situated near the middle
of the ventral aspect of the abdomen, and their spiracles are
connected by a prominent furrow. There are eight eves, of
which the anterior median are dark and the others pearly white;

257

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the eyes occupy the entire width of the head. The claws of the

chelicerae are nearly vertical. The pedipalps are in front of the

labium. It was the position of the labium below the pedipalps

that suggested the name

Hypocbilus. The palpus

of the male is remarkable — ^se-^^tS;

in that the bulb is borne

Fig. 229. FACE AND
HELICER.E OF ARANEA

Fig. 230. PEDIPALP OF TRACHELAS
en, endite sc, scopula sc, serrula

near the extremity of the tarsus (Fig. 232). It is of the inter-
mediate type, the apical division of the bulb being separated
into two parts, the embolus and the conductor of the embolus.

Fig. 231. HYPOCHILUS THORELLII (after Marx)

The embolus is coiled about the conductor. The tarsus bears
a branch which supports a prominent bunch of bristles; this
may be a rudimentary form of paracymbium.

258

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus HYPOCHILUS (Hyp-o-chi'lus)

This genus is distinguished from the genus Ectatosticta, to
which the two exotic members of the family belong, in having
a transverse labium, which is much shorter than long. It con-
tains only a single known species.

Hypochilus thorellii (H. tho-rel'li-i).— This is a spider with
an elongate body and very long and slender legs (Fig. 231). It
resembles a Pbolcus in general
appearance. The male measures
two fifths inch in length; the
female, three fifths. The cribel-
lum is semicircular and undi-
vided. The calamistrum is
situated near the base of the
fourth metatarsus and consists
of long slender hairs.

It has not been my good
fortune to study this spiderin the
field and very little has been
published regarding its habits.
But, thanks to the courtesy of
correspondents, I am able to give
the following account:

Hypochilus constructs its
webs on the under surface of
projecting cliffs and rocks, and es-
pecially in the vicinity of streams.
Dr. W. H. Fox has sent me a
photograph of a typical locality
for this spider (Fig. 233). The picture was taken on Walden
Ridge, Tenn., and there were half a dozen or more webs on the
under surface of the largest slab.

The web is a meshed one, and is shaped like a lamp shade.
Owing to the darkness of the situations in which they are built,
it is impracticable to procure photographs of these webs in the
field; but Dr. J. Chester Bradley sent me living individuals, from
Tallulah Falls, Ga., which 1 placed in cages in our insectary,
and which made webs that I have been able to photograph.

The spider first spins a circular sheet upon the lower sur-

Fi'r. 232.

PALPUS OF

HYPOCHILUS

THORELLII

259

Superfamily Argiopoidea

face of the supporting object, which in this case was the roof
of the cage. It then spins the foundation of the sides of a down-
ward extending cylinder, which is at first a very open net-work;
this is shown in the upper part of Fig. 234. In the completed
web the net-work is finely meshed, as is shown in the lower part
of Fig. 234. When at rest the spider remains upon the sheet
forming the roof of the web, hanging back downward, with its legs
extended radiately, the tips of them reaching the edge of the

(Photographed by W . H. Fox)
Fig. 233. TYPICAL LOCALITY FOR HYPOCHILUS

horizontal sheet, so that the claws can touch the descending
portion of the web. From this edge the sides of the web extend
downward like the sides of a lamp shade.

The framework of the web consists of smooth threads; but
a very large part of the meshes is made of a hackled band. The
hackled band is of the same type as that of Amaurobins, figured
later (Fig. 250). The warp consists of four threads. Two of
these lie in the central portion of the band; they are straight
and parallel. On either side of these two straight threads,

260

Fig. 234. WEB OF HYPOCHILUS
UPPER FIGURE. BEGINNING OF WEB, NATURAL SIZE;
LOWER FIGURE, COMPLETED WEB

26l

Superfamily Argiopoidea

there is a very much curled thread. And supported by these
four threads there is a band of viscid silk, the edges of which are
undulating, and at a considerable distance from the curled threads;
that is, the woof is much wider than the warp.

Family ULOBORID^E (U-lo-bor'i-dee)

The Uloborids (U-lob'o-rids)

The Uloboridae includes a small number of very remarkable
spiders. They agree with the Argiopidae and differ from all other
spiders in spinning orb-webs. But they differ from the Argiopidae

^Sfc

Fig. 235. POSTERIOR METATARSUS OF ULOBORUS

in the possession of a cribellum and a calamistrum; and their
webs differ from those of that family in containing a hackled band,
instead of the ordinary viscid thread.

Fig. 236. HACKLED BAND OF HYPTIOTES

The eyes are all dark in colour; the lateral eyes on each side
are farther apart than are the two pairs of median eyes; and the
posterior median eyes are of moderate size. The posterior

262

Superfamily Argiopoidea

metatarsi are much curved and are armed below with a series
of spines (Fig. 255); the calamistrum occupies more than half
of the length of the segment.

I have studied the hackled band of our two genera, Uloborus
and Hyptiotes. The structure of it is the same in the two and is
quite characteristic (Fig. 236). There is a warp consisting of two
straight threads, upon which the woof of viscid silk is borne.
The two strands of the warp are strictly parallel, are smooth,
and are exceedingly delicate. They do not show well in the figure
as they were out of focus when the picture was taken. 1 found,
with the high magnification required, that it was impossible
to get both the warp and the woof in focus at once, they being
in slightly different planes, the woof resting upon the warp.
I he woof consists of an exceedingly regular series of overlapping
lobes.

It seems probable that the warp is spun from two spigots,
one on each of a pair of spinnerets, and that the woof is combed
from the cribellum by the calamistrum.

Our two genera can be separated as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE ULOBORID/E

A. Cephalothorax ovate, rounded behind. Uloborus

AA. Cephalothorax wide in the middle, narrowed in front and

cut off squarely behind; the sides concave in front, nearly

parallel behind. Hyptiotes

Genus ULOBORUS (U-lob'o-rus)

The great length and robust form of the front legs of these
spiders cause them to present a very characteristic appearance:
this is shown in Fig. 257, which represents our most common
species. Other species differ in the form of the abdomen, in the
arrangement of the eyes, in markings, and in the nature of the
clothing of hairs. Figure 238 represents the ventral aspect of
the cephalothorax of Uloborus americanus.

The spiders of this genus make orb-webs, which resemble in
general appearance those of the more common orb-weavers, the
Argiopidre, but differ in that the spiral thread is a hackled band.
These webs are almost always horizontal, and usually made in
low bushes, or between objects near the ground, or in buildings,

2() 3

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the spiders preferring the cool and shady places. The weDS are
never furnished with a retreat, but are often strengthened by
a sheeted hub or by a stabilimentum. Certain exotic species
are social, a large number of individuals living near together
and spinning their orbs on a common foundation.

More than sixty species of Uloborus are known, but only
.our are found in the United States; most of the species inhabit
hot countries; this being true, it seems strange that our northern
species should prefer cool situations.

The following are the best-known of our species:

Uloborus americanus (U. a-mer-i-ca'nus). — The female is

about one fifth inch in length. It varies greatly in colour and

markings. The abdomen is slightly notched in front, is widest

and highest at one third of its length from its base; and at this

Fig. 237. ULOBORUS AMERICANUS

l. ^r w

Fig. 238.

ULOBORUS AMERICANUS

VENTRAL ASPECT

point, it bears a pair of humps. The posterior row of eyes is
strongly recurved. The tibiae of the fore legs bear a bunch of
hairs at the tip.

The male is from one tenth to one eighth inch in length.
The humps of the abdomen are small or wanting; and the tibiae
of the fore legs lack the brushes of hairs characteristic of the
female.

The species has been commonly known as Uloborus plumipes;
but it was first described under the specific name used here.

This remarkable spider has been found throughout the
eastern United States from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico,
and it probably occurs over the entire extent of our country; it
is also found in Europe.

Although so widely distributed, it is found, so far as I have

264

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266

Superfamily Argiopoidea

observed, in very limited localities, and only in small numbers.
There is a little nook, a few minutes walk from my laboratory,
on the south bank of a deep ravine, where but little direct sun-
light falls, and where the air is kept moist by a near cataract.
Here, upon the low straggling branches of the American yew,
in the dense shade of tall hemlock trees, there is established a

Fig. 241. MESHED HUB OF ULOBORUS AMERICANUS

colony of Uloborus, which has persisted through several years.
By careful search one can find here, at the right season, perhaps
a score of webs. But nowhere else in the region about have I been
able to find this spider except occasionally an individual; and these
have been found in somewhat similar situations.

Although most of the webs that I have studied were made
on the yew, it happens that those that I was able to photograph,

267

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and consequently those that are used for illustration here, were

made on other plants.

The web is usually nearly horizontal. It is sometimes a

complete orb (Fig. 239), and sometimes an incomplete one (Fig.

240). The hub is meshed (Fig. 241); there is no clear space,

and to the unaided eye, the hackled band, which constitutes

the spiral thread, appears like the spiral thread of an Aranea.
The structure of this hackled band has been dis-
cussed on page 263.

The spiders reach maturity in early summer;
their orbs are then from three to five inches in
diameter. The spider rests beneath the hub, and
resembles a bit of dried leaf. At this time, the egg-
sacs are made. They are light brown in colour, are
ejongate, about one fourth inch in length, and bear
several tubercles (Fig. 242). They are suspended in
or near the web (Fig. 240). In central New York
the eggs hatch in the latter part of July.

On one occasion I had a brood of young of this
Fig. 242. species in a cage; each one made a stabilimentum

E:LG"^°J across the centre of its web; but the parent spider

UL.OUORUS

americanus had none in her web.

Fig. 243. ULOBORUS GENICULATES

This species is the Uloborus plumipes of Lucas.

Uloborus geniculatus (U. ge-nic-u-la'tus). — The female meas-
ures one fourth/inch in length; the male one fifth inch. The
abdomen bears a single obtuse hump at the end of the first third
of its length. The posterior row of eyes is nearly straight. The
markings are very conspicuous in living individuals; but the
markings of the abdomen are very apt to disappear when the
specimen is placed in alcohol. Figure 243 is from a photograph

268

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of a specimen resting on some threads it had spun in a glass
cage; but the threads were not sufficiently well lighted to be
photographed. Upon the hump of the abdomen there is a black
transverse bar; in front of this bar the dorsum is light gray;
back of it, a light brown, with some gray hairs. There are three
pairs of light gray spots margined with black; those of the first
pair are situated one at each end of the black bar; the third pair
is midway between the first pair and the tip of the abdomen.

This is a tropical species, which is found throughout the
tropics of both hemispheres; and it extends into the southern
part of the United States.

I found many specimens which had built their webs on the
ceiling of an old powder magazine at Baton Rouge, La. The room
was poorly lighted and was much like a cellar.

1 was unable to see the webs distinctly in this dark room at
Baton Rouge. But later I found this species common in build-

Fig. 244.

EGG-SAC OF ULOBO
RUS GENICULATES

Fig. 245. HYPTIOTES CAVATUS, ENLARGED

ings on the Bermuda Islands. In one case a web was in a good
light so that I could see it well. There was a sheeted hub upon
which the spider was resting; and the hackled band was attached
to the radii in the same manner as in the hackled band of Hyp-
tiotes; that is, the band did not extend directly across a radius,
but followed it for a short distance, as is the case with the
spiral thread in the notched zone of the web of some of the
Argiopidae.

The egg-sacs of this species (Fig. 244) are of a pinkish brown
colour, and star-like in outline, and measure about one fourlh inch
in diameter.

269

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus HYPTIOTES (Hyp-ti'o-tes)

The following is the only species of this genus that has been
described from the United States.

The Triangle Spider, Hyptiotes cavatus (H. ca-va'tus). —
This inconspicuous spider will ordinarily be recognized by the
form of its web; the spider itself being so well-protected by its
form and colouring as to escape observation. It usually rests
close to a dead branch and resembles a dried bud of this branch.

The adult female is one sixth inch in length. The outline
of the body is shown in Fig. 245. On the back of the abdomen
there are four pairs of slight elevations, on which are a few stiff
hairs. The male is one twelfth inch in length; the abdomen
is of a more slender form and the humps are not so prominent.

The habits of this spider have been made well-known through
the writings of Dr. B. G. Wilder, who first described them more
than thirty-five years ago in the Popular Science Monthly (April,
1875). Its web is most often found stretched between the twigs
of a dead branch of pine or hemlock. At first sight it appears like
a fragment of an orb-web (Fig. 246) ; but a little study will show
that it is complete. It consists of four plain lines corresponding
to the radiating lines of an orb-web, and supported by these a
variable number of threads which appear like sections of the
spiral line of an orb-web. From the point where the radiating
lines meet a strong line extends to one of the supporting twigs.

Each of the transverse lines supported by the four radii
is a hackled band consisting of a warp of two threads and a woof
of overlapping lobes of viscid silk like that of Uloborus (Fig. 236).
Each band is fastened to each radius by being applied to it length-
wise for a short distance; this makes the course of each band a
zigzag one. In Fig. 246 one can see that in the spaces between
the bands there is in each case a short section of the radius not
overlapped by the bands, which consequently appears as a more
delicate line; this is best shown on the two intermediate radii.

The number of radii in the web of this spider is always
four; but the number of hackled bands varies greatly; it is usually
about ten, but often less than that number, and sometimes more
than twenty.

The spider rests on the single line, upon which the four
radii converge, near the point where the line joins the supporting

270

Fig. 346. WEB OF HYPTIOTES CAVATUS

271

Superfamily Argiopoidea

twig. The spider is usually quite close to the twig, so that it ap-
pears as a small bud (Fig. 246); but sometimes it rests a small
distance from the twig (Fig. 245).

While at rest the spider pulls the web taut, so that there is
some loose line between its legs. When an insect becomes en-
tangled in one of the hackled bands, the spider suddenly lets
go the loose line so that the whole web springs forward, and
the insect is entangled in
other bands. The spider
then draws the web tight
and snaps it again. This
may be repeated several
times before the spider
goes out upon the web
after its prey

Fig. 247. EGG-SAC OF
HYPTIOTES CAVATUS

Fig. 248. PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF COVERING
OF EGG-SAC OF HYPTIOTES CAVATUS

The egg-sac of the spider illustrates protective colouring as
well as does the spider itself. Although it is a common object in a
region where 1 have collected much, 1 never saw it until a spider
that was in a bottle in my laboratory made one on the cork stopper
of the bottle; having seen one specimen 1 was able to find others
in the field. Figure 247 represents the most conspicuous one
in our collection, somewhat enlarged. It is flat, oval, and closely

272

Superfamily Argiopoidea

applied to a twig. The egg-sac proper is about one fourth inch
in length; but this is covered by a somewhat larger sheet, which
by its gray colour serves to conceal it. This covering layer is
well worth study with a microscope. It consists of a sheet
of dirty white silk, upon which are transverse parallel lines near
together of crochet-work in black silk (Fig. 248).

This species is widely distributed in the eastern United States
and Prof. V. L. Kellogg reports the presence of it or of a closely
allied undescribed species in California.

Family DEINOPIDiE (Dei-nop'i-dae^

The Ogre-faced Spiders

The enormous size of one pair of eyes, the posterior median,
gives the face of these spiders a very unusual appearance (Fig.
249). It was probably this characteristic that suggested the name
of the typical genus, Deinopis; from the Greek deinos, terrible,
and opsis, appearance. And for the same reason I suggest for
the familv the common name used above. The family is repre-
sented in our fauna by a single genus.

Genus DEINOPIS (Dein'o-pis)

The body is slender and the legs very long. The eyes are all
small except the posterior median, which are enormously devel-
oped and project forward (Fig. 249). The cribellum is trans-
versely elongate, and not divided by a septum. And the cala-
mistrum occupies less than half of the length
of the metatarsus. The endites are divergent
and curved on the outside. The name of
this genus is often written Dinopis; but
the form adopted here is the original one.

Deinopis spinosus (D. spi-no'sus). —
This is a slender spider, measuring two
thirds of an inch in length and less than

one eighth

inch in width. The legs are

long, the first two pairs being more than
twice as long as the body. The abdomen
is greenish yellow, with a lancet-shaped,

Fig. 249. DEIXOPIS a. face

b, lateral \ iew of cophalo-

thorax (aftei Marx)

273

Superfamily Argiopoidea

brownish folium, and many round black dots. The species is
rare; it has been found in Florida and Alabama; and is the only
representative of the family reported from the United States.
Mr. Banks informs me that he has taken this species at
Washington, D. C.

Very little is known regarding the habits of the spiders of
this family. They are said to build a horizontal web, which
resembles that of the grass spider, Agelena, except that it has no
tubular retreat; the spider stands in the centre of the web while
waiting for its prey. Nothing is known concerning the structure
of the hackled band or of the part it plays in the building of
the web.

Family DICTYNIDS (Dic-tyn'i-dae)

The Dictynids (Dic-tyn'ids)

To this family belong the greater number of our species
that are furnished with a cribellum and a calamistrum, the
Dictynidae including several times as many species as all other
families of hackled-band weavers taken together.

With the dictynids the median furrow of the cephalothorax
is longitudinal; the posterior metatarsi are not armed below with
a series of spines; the chelicerae are robust, and are furnished with
a lateral condyle; the anterior median eyes are dark in colour,
the others pearly white; and the lateral eyes of each side are con-
tiguous or near together; the tarsi of the legs bear three claws;
a cribellum and a calamistrum are present; and the fore and hind
spinnerets are of about the same length (Fig. 140, p. 135).

The dictynids construct irregular webs consisting of a frame-
work of plain threads supporting an irregular net-work of the
hackled band. Sometimes the supporting threads radiate from
the opening of a retreat, with a certain degree of symmetry,
giving the web a somewhat regular appearance.

The structure of the hackled band is most easily seen in the
webs of Amaurobius, on account of its coarser nature here than
in the webs of other genera. It is a comparatively easy matter
to determine the arrangement of the parts of this band with a
microscope; but it is difficult to secure a perfectly satisfactory
photomicrograph of it, owing to the impossibility of getting all

274

Superfamily Argiopoidea

portions of the curled threads in focus at once when greatly
magnified.

The warp consists of four threads (Fig. 250). Two of these lie
in the central portion of the band; they are straight and parallel.
The other threads extend, one along the middle of each lateral
half of the band, and are curled. These four threads, consti-

* * V

• K>:%

f - ' "

'" *♦

• ¥

■

•

«•

5i_

Fig. 250. HACKLED HAND OF AMAUROBIUS

tuting the warp of the band, support a sheet of viscid silk, the
woof. The woof has a wavy outline, but does not consist of a
regular series of lobes as in the Uloboridae.

Four genera are represented in our fauna; but two of these,
Amaurobius and Didyna include all of the more common species.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE DICTYNID/F.

A. Sternum not prolonged behind between the posterior coxae;

cribellum divided into two parts. P. 276. Amaurobius

\A. Sternum extending between the hind coxae; cribellum

always undivided.

B. With six eyes. P. 287. Scotolathys

BB. With eight eyes.

C. Clypeus much wider from before backward than the an-
terior eyes; head very convex, usually subgibbose; en-
dites moderately long and inclined. P. 280. Dictyna
CC. Clypeus not at all or not much wider than the anterior
eyes; head usually lower; endites shorter and nearly
straight. P. 279. Lathys

275

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus AMAUROBIUS (Am-au-ro'bi-us)

The sternum is not prolonged between the posterior coxae
(Fig. 251); and the cribellum is divided into two parts (Fig. 252).
This genus includes the larger representatives of the family,
some of them being nearly one half inch in length. Seven spe-
cies have been described from the
United States.

These spiders prefer cool, moist,
and poorly lighted situations.
They live in cracks in cliffs, in
cellar walls, in stumps, in hollow

Fig. 251. AMAUROBIUS, VENT-
RAL ASPECT

Fig. 252. CRIBELLUM OF AMAUROBIUS

Fig. 253. WEB OF AMAUROBIUS

logs, and under stones. Some of them spin a loose, irregular
web, in which there appears to be no definite plan (Fig. 253).
Others that live in a retreat in a crack in a cliff or wall spin a
sheet of silk about the entrance to the retreat (Fig. 254). Some

276

£uperfamily Argiopoidea

of the lines composing this sheet radiate from the central part
of it and support a network of hackled bands.

1 have observed the egg-sac of A. bennetti. This is a loosely
woven, flat sac, attached to a stone or other object and covered
with an irregular mesh of threads. It is made near the web,

-\v|.

\\ l.i: OF AMM ROBI!

and the young, after they leave it. are attended by the mother.
In this species the young emerge in the latter part of the summer.

The following are our more common species.

Amaurohms bennetti (A. ben-net'ti). — This is the most
common species in the North (Fig. 255). The females are two
fifths of an inch long; the males, one third of an inch. It is of a

27'

Superfamily Argiopoidea

brownish black colour marked with yellowish white. On the
basal half of the abdomen there are two parallel, longitudinal,
light bands; each of these is continued in a zigzag course to the
tip of the abdomen, or there may be several light chevrons on
the hind part of the abdomen, the light markings varying greatly
in size and form in different individuals. These markings are
much more distinct after a specimen has been kept in alcohol.
The epigynum of the female consists of three lobes, a small
median lobe which is pointed behind, and two larger lateral

Fig. 256. EPIGYNUM OF
AMAUROBIUS BENNETTI

Fig. 255. AMAUROBIUS BENNETTI

Fig. 2S7- TIBIA OF
THE PALPUS OF
MALE OF AMAUR-
OBIUS BENNETTI

lobes which meet behind the median lobe (Fig. 256). The tibia
of the palpus of the male is of the form shown in Fig. 257.

Amaurobius ferox (A. fe'rox). — This is a larger species, adult
females often measuring a half inch in length. It is dusky brown
in colour. In well-marked individuals, there are, on the base of the
abdomen, three yellowish white, longitudinal bands, and on the
hind part, four pairs of light spots; but there are great variations
in the markings. The most distinctive characteristics are the
following.

The lateral lobes of the epigynum do not meet behind the
middle lobe (Fig. 258); and the tibia of the palpus of the male
is of the form shown in Fig. 259.

This is a domestic spider, being found in cellars, under the

278

Superfamily Argiopoidea

floors of dwelling houses, in outhouses, and in other buildings.
It is also found under logs and stones in the fields.

Amaurobius americanus (A. a-mer-i-ca'nus). — The body is
one fourth inch in length, and of a deep black colour, except the

Fig. 258. EPIGYNUM OF
AMAUROBIUS FEROX

Fig. 259. TIBIA OF

PALPUS OF MALE

OF AMAUROBIUS

FEROX

cephalothorax, which is of a dull orange colour; the abdomen is
usually without markings; but in some individuals there are a few
light gray spots in pairs on the abdomen.

Emerton, who first described this species, states that it
lives under stones in the hottest and dryest places. It is the
Titanoeca americanus of Emerton.

Genus LATHYS (La'thys)

Five species of this
genus are known from the
United States. The follow-
ing will serve as examples.

Lathy s foxii (L.fox'i-i).
— The length of the body
is less than one twelfth
inch. The cephalothorax
is yellowish; the abdomen
grayish white with dark
gray markings, consisting
of about five transverse
lines. The accompanying
figures (Fig. 260) are by
Doctor Marx ('91 ), who first
described the species. It was described from specimens collected
in Tennessee; and it has been taken at Ithaca, N. Y. Its range
is therefore quite wide. — This is the Prodalia foxii of Marx.

Fig. 260. LATHYS FOXII

a, i 1 f .11 !• ,

labium and endites ■!, epigynum (after Marx)

279

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Lathy s maculata (L. mac-u-la'ta). — In this species the anterior
median eyes are very small, so that the spider appears to be
six-eyed. The cephalothorax is pale yellowish; the abdomen
whitish with a basal black mark and four rows of transverse dark
marks. The species was described by Mr. Banks from specimens
taken at Mobile, and at Meridian, Miss. It is the Didyolathus
maculata of this author.

Genus D1CTYNA (Dic-ty'na)

The sternum extends between the hind coxae; the clypeus
is much wider from before backward, than the diameter of
the anterior eyes; and the endites are moderately long
and convergent (Fig. 261).

The most familiar of
the hackled-band weavers
belong to this genus, which
is a very large one, includ-
ing nearly one hundred
species, of which thirty (it-
more occur in our fauna.

Fig. 261.
STERNUM OF DICTYNA

Fig. 262. EGG-SACS OF DICTYNA

These spiders are of small or moderate size; and the different
species show marked differences in habits. The species described
below as illustrating the genus have been selected with the view
of showing the more striking of these differences. One of them
usually builds its webs on the walls of buildings, one in the heads
of plants, and one on the surface of leaves.

280

Superfamily Argiopoidea

A single female makes several egg-sacs; these are lenticular
in form, snowy white in colour, and are usually made in or near
the web. They are placed side by side (Fig. 262) or in an over-
lapping series. Nineteen species of Dictyna are recognized as
occurring in our fauna; of these the following are the more
common.

Dictyna sublata (D. sub-Ia'ta). — The adult female is one
sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax is reddish brown,
clothed with white hairs, which are arranged upon the head in
five longitudinal lines. The abdomen is brown above, with a cen-
tral, longitudinal dark band, with irregular edges, and more or
less nearly broken in the middle of its length. The shape of the
abdominal marking varies greatly in different individuals, and
especially on the hind half of the abdomen. The form of the

■
<

'&$$&-,

Mill

Fig. 263.
EPIGYXUM OF DICTYNA SUBLATA

Fig. 264. TIBIA OF

PALPUS OF .MA1.K

OF DICTYNA

SUBLATA

epigynum is shown in Fig. 263. The tibia of the palpus of the
male (Fig. 264) bears a short apophysis at the base; this apophysis
is much shorter than the diameter of the tibia and is bifid at
the tip.

The sheet-like webs of this species are very common on the
sides of buildings. The spider builds a retreat in some small
opening or corner, and makes its web about the opening of this
retreat. Frequently some of the threads forming the foundation
of the web extend in a radiating manner from the small, circular
opening of the retreat, giving the web a certain degree of regularity.

The web represented in Fig. 265 was made on the outside
of a window sash. The retreat was in the angle of the sash near
the centre of the web but it does not show in the picture. And
the plain threads forming the foundation of the web are also
invisible: but the zigzag courses of the hackled band resting on
these threads are well-shown. This is especially the case in the
lower left corner of the web.

281

ru 26^. WEB OF D1CTVNA SUBLATA

282

Superfamily Argiopoidea

I have found similar webs very common on the rough bark
of the trunks of elm trees on the Cornell Campus. In
these cases, the retreat of the spider was beneath a scale of
the bark.

There is in our collection a web, which I believe to be of this
species, and which was made on a dead branch on a larch tree

Fig. 266. WEB OF DICTYNA SUBLATA

(Fig. 266). In this web the characteristic form of the entrance
to the retreat is well-shown.

The adult spiders can be found in their webs in early summer.
It is evident that they reach maturity in the autumn or early
The egg-sacs are made early in June; and then follows

283

spring.

Superfamily Argiopoidea

an interval in which no new webs are made. In August the young
spiders can be found in their webs.

Didyna volucripes (D. vo-lu'cri-pes). — The body is about
one sixth inch in length. This species resembles the preceding
in colour and markings; but can be distinguished by the form of
the epigynum (Fig. 267) and by the form of the apophysis on
the base of the tibia of the palpus of the male (Fig. 268), which
is very much longer than in D. sublata.

The web is usually made near the top of some herbaceous
plant. In the centre of it is a silken retreat, spun in an angle
at the base of a branch or of a leaf stalk. The two examples
figured (Figs. 269 and 270) illustrate the most common type. In
Fig. 269 the spider can be seen resting on the retreat. A very
common feature in these webs is a ladder-like structure formed by
stretching a hackled band back and forth between two supporting
threads. This is shown in the edges of the upper part of Fig. 269.
Old webs are often refurbished by the addition of new ladders.

The adults pair in mid-summer; the male and female live
together in their nest till after the female has made her egg-sacs;
these are made in the centre of the web, a single spider making
several of them. The female continues to use the web after
making her egg-sacs; and in the autumn the old female and the
young brood live together in the old web.

Didyna foliacea (D. fo-li-a'ce-a). — The length of the body
is about one eighth inch. The cephalothorax is light brown,
darker on the sides and light on the head. The abdomen is yellow
in the middle and brown, sometimes red, at the sides. The
outline of the yellow portion differs greatly in different individuals.
The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 271. In the male
the chelicerae are very long, almost as long as the cephalothorax;
and the palpi are long and large. The tibia of the male palpus
is twice as long as wide, with a short, two-spined apophysis near
its base.

This species is commonly known as D. volupis; but it is evi-
dently the Theridion foliacea of Hentz.

The web is made in the hollow of a leaf, the edges of which
have been slightly rolled (Fig. 272). No part of the web is formed
for a retreat, the spider resting on the surface of the web. The
specimen figured here contains four egg-sacs, which are placed
in two piles of two each; it was collected in July.

284

Fig. 267.

EPIGYNUM OF DICTYNA

VOLUCRIPES

Kg. 26S. TIBIA OF
PALPUS OF MALE OF
DICTYNA VOLUCRIPES

u EB 01 l'H n \A VOLUCRIPES

28-i

Fig. 270. WEB OF DICTYNA VOLUCRIPES

286

Fig. 272. WEB OF DICTYNA FOLIACEA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus SCOTOLATHYS (Sco-to-la'thys)

The six-eyed condition of these spi-
ders distinguishes them from the other
members of the family found in our fauna.
Only one North American species has
been described.

Scotolathys pallidas (S. pal'li-dus). —
The body is only about one sixteenth of
an inch in length. The cephalothorax
is pale orange yellow, the abdomen and
legs yellowish white. The eyes are on
two black patches, one on each side.
Fig. 272 bis.

Mr. Banks reports finding this spider under stones and
leaves in holes in the ground, often an inch from the surface.
Its web has not been described.

This species is the Neophanes pallidus of Marx.

Fig. 272 bis. SCOTOLATHYS

PALLIDUS a, female enlarged

b, face (after Marx)

Family CECOBIIDiE (CE-co-bi'i-dae)

CEcobius (CE-co'bi-us)

The family OEcobiidae is
represented by a single known
genus, CEcobius, which includes
a small number of tropical and
subtropical species.

In this family the cephalo-
thorax is broader than long, with

Fig. 273.
END OF ABDOMEN OF CECOBIUS

Fig. 27*. CALAMISTRUM OF (ECOBIUS

the group of eyes nearly in the centre. The eyes are unequal
in size and dissimilar in form. The anterior median and the
posterior lateral eyes are dark in colour; the others, pearly white.
The posterior median eyes are elongate and usually angular;

287

Superfamily Argiopoidea

but the arrangement of the eyes varies in different species. The
chelicera are small, without a lateral condyle, but with a compara-
tively long claw. The endites are strongly inclined and nearly
contiguous at the apex. The cribellum is narrow, transverse,
and divided into two parts (Fig. 273). The hind spinnerets are
two-jointed; the second segment is long and furnished with a comb
of long spinning tubes on the inner side (Fig. 273); the spinning
tubes are easily broken off and are consequently frequently
wanting. The postabdomen is prominent; the terminal segment
is furnished with a fringe of long, curved hairs (Fig. 273). The
calamistrum (Fig. 274) consists of a single series of long, slender,
curved hairs; parallel with the calamistrum, in our species at
least, there are two or more rows of similar hairs, which are
arranged in a less regular manner, and which perhaps form a
part of the calamistrum.

I have not yet succeeded in obtaining a satisfactory photo-
graph of the hackled band.

Genus CECOBIUS (CE-co'bi-us)

As this is the only known genus belonging to this family,
the family characteristics given above may be taken as the generic
characters also. Two species have been found within the limits
of the United States.

CEcobius parietalis (CE. pa-ri-e-ta'lis). — This is a small
spider, measuring less than one eighth inch in length, which is
found in crevices on the sides of buildings and of walls and within
buildings. In fact the spiders of this genus are essentially do-
mestic spiders. This fact suggested the generic name, which is
from the Greek oikobios, living at home, domestic.

The cephalothorax and legs are a very pale yellowish or
greenish white marked with dark bands and spots (Fig. 275);
sometimes many of these spots are indistinct or wanting. The
abdomen is light brown, marked with dark spots and many
smaller white ones.

This species is widely distributed in the warmer portions
of the South. I found it common on the walls of buildings in
New Orleans, and in several other Southern cities. It is also
reported by Emerton from a house in Roxbury, Mass.; and Mr.
Banks has taken it at Washington, D. C.

288

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The webs of this spider are made over cracks in the sides of
buildings and in angles; or are stretched over some slightly pro-
jecting object, as the head of a nail. The principal part of the
web is a sheet of very fine silk, which is usually less than one
inch in diameter. This sheet has a warp of direct lines, which
support a filmy woof, and is often
more or less star-like in outline.
Beneath this sheet, there is either a
tube within which the spider waits, or
a second sheet, somewhat smaller
than the outer one, upon which the
spider rests. When the spider is
disturbed, it runs with exceeding
rapidity.

This species is the Thalamia pari-
etalis of Hentz.

CEcobius floridana (CE. flor-i-

... A , . , ~ , . Fig. 275. (ECOBIUS PARIETALIS

da na). — A second species or Ltcobius

has been described by Mr. Banks from specimens collected in

Florida. The female measures one twelfth inch in length.

The cephalothorax is pale grayish, blackish on its edges; the

abdomen is grayish, blackish on the sides, and with no silvery

spots.

This species is the Thalamia floridana of Banks.

Family FILISTATID^ (Fil-is-tat'i-dae)

Filistata (Fil-is-ta'ta)

The Filistatidas is represented by a single known genus,
Filistata, which contains a small number of tropical and sub-
tropical species. One of these is a common house-spider in the
Southern states.

In this family the cephalothorax is oval, longer than broad.
The eyes are massed in a small group, which is hardly wider than
long; the anterior median eyes are dark in colour and round, the
others are pearl}- white and oval or angular (Fig. 276). The chelic-
erae are small and lack a lateral condyle; they are chelate, the
short claw being apposed by a prolongation of the basal segment
(Fig. 277). The palpus of the male is the most simple found
among spiders.

289

;..#

Fig. 276. EYES OF FILISTATA

Fig. 277. CHELICERA
OF FILISTATA

Fig. 278. CALAMISTRUM OF FILISTATA

Fig. 279. PALPUS OF MALE OF
FILISTATA

Fig. 280. FILISTATA HIBERNALIS

290

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus FILISTATA (Fil-is-ta'ta)

The more important characteristics of this genus are given
in the above description of the family, to which may be added the
following. The calamistrum is near the base of the fourth
metatarsus and is very short (Fig. 278). In the adult male the
calamistrum is wanting. The palpus of the male is comparatively

A t ! i

1 1 , 1 1

ilin i .;.

Fig. 281. THE HOME OF FILISTATA

simple in structure (Fig. 279); it is described in detail on page
108. The following is our only species:

Filistata bibernalis (F. hi-ber-na'lis). — The larger individuals
of this species (Fig. 280) measure from one half to five eighths
of an inch in length. The legs are long, especially the first pair,

291

Superfamily Argiopoidea

which are about twice as long as the body. The colour of the
body is usually a dark brownish black without markings. But
1 collected many specimens under stones at Austin, Tex., that
appeared velvety black in some lights, in other lights they bore
a lead-coloured tinge.

These arc sedentary spiders which live under stones, in
crevices about buildings, and in other similar situations. The

Fig. 282. A DETAIL FROM Fig. 281

spiders themselves are rarely seen, except by the collector, but
their webs are often very conspicuous, especially in the extreme
south. These webs are frequently built upon the sides of build-
ings and are more or less circular in outline, surrounding the
opening of the retreat of the spider. Figure 281 shows the char-
acteristic form and location of these webs; it represents the side
of a neglected building at Miami, Fla. In Fig. 282 some of
the same webs are shown less reduced. The webs of this spider

292

• 1

% )

rV-' ,r

&wr

^MPff^

* i

;// / u\< fM V>

3*r

Fig. 2S3. A MADE -TO-ORDER WEB OF FILISTATA

293

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are rendered very conspicuous by accumulations of dust, which is
caught and held by the hackled band of which the web is largely
composed.

Under natural conditions the web is so quickly injured by in-
sects and obscured by dust that its plan of structure is not easily
seen. But this is well-shown in some made-to-order webs that
were built by spiders in confinement in my laboratory. Figure
283 is from a photograph of one of these.

A shallow box was made, the cavity of which served as a
retreat for the spider. In the centre of one face of the box a
hole was made for the egress of the spider; and this face of the
box was painted black so that if a web were built upon it it would
make a good background for a photograph of the web. The box
containing an active spider was then placed under a glass bell-jar.
Several cages of this kind were prepared, and in every case where
a spider that had been uninjured, by its trip from the South,
was caged a web was built on the face of the cage around the
opening in it, although, as a rule, several days elapsed before
the web was begun.

Figure 284 represents the beginning of one of these webs.
Additions were made to the web from time to time, but always in
the night, the spider never leaving its retreat during the day-time
except to capture an insect that had been caught in its web.
Flies placed in the bell-jar were caught by the spider as soon as
they touched the web, the spider rushing out from its retreat
with great rapidity, and immediately carrying its prey into the
interior of the box. Figure 283, which is from a photograph
taken seventeen days later, represents this web in its most perfect
condition; later the regularity of the radiating lines was destroyed
by the insects that were given the spider for food; the web pre-
senting an appearance like that shown in Fig. 282, which is
the usual appearance of the webs of this species built under
natural conditions.

In building this web an irregular net-work of lines was made
about the opening of the retreat; this net-work forms the central
portion of the web, and is of such structure that any disturbance
of the web sets it in vibration. It consists chiefly of plain threads
which are fastened to the supporting surface by a few attachment
disks but are not closely applied to this surface, so that they can
be readily set in motion. The net-work is continued as a tube

294

Fig. 284. THE BEGINNING OF A MADE-TO-ORDER WEB OF FILISTATA

205

Superfamily Argiopoldea

which extends through the hole in the board upon which it is
built; but is considerably smaller than this hole, so that it can
easily vibrate in it (Fig. 284). On the inner surface of the board
the net-work is continued as a sheet resembling somewhat that on
the outer surface. It is probably upon this sheet that the spider
waits for its prey. Here it is concealed from sight but is in a
position to detect any vibration of the web.

But the most characteristic feature of the web is a series of
radiating lines, which consist of a doubled plain thread supporting
a looped hackled band. In making these lines the spider spins
a thread of plain silk, which consists of several parallel strands,

BjjctaMg s

fc.

Fig. 285. HACKLED BAND OF FILISTATA

from near the centre of the web to a distant point, where it is
fastened by an attachment disk; the spider then returns to the
starting point spinning as it goes another similar thread closely
parallel to the first. Upon these two threads, which serve as a
foundation, are fastened afterward loops of a hackled band.
This doubled supporting line and the loops of the hackled band
can be seen with the unaided eye, and are shown in Fig. 283.
A small section of one of the radiating lines is shown greatly
enlarged in Fig. 285. This picture is from a photomicrograph
and is not as perfect as could be desired; for with the high magnifi-
cation necessary to see the details it was impossible to get all
parts of a loop in focus at once; hence each loop appears blurred
in a part of its course.

Four kinds of silk enter into the formation of this remarkable
structure. First,- — the doubled supporting line; this appears

296

Superfamily Argiopoidea

as a single thread in Fig. 285; but its double nature is shown in
the part not covered with the hackled band near the outer end
of each line (Fig. 284); each of the two parts of this double thread
consists of several parallel strands; this can be seen by slight
magnification of that part where it is flattened near the attach-
ment disk. Second, — the primary looped threads; there are two
of these, and they form the axis of the hackled band; they are
extremely elastic. Third, — the secondary looped threads; there
is one of these supported by each of the two primary looped
threads; each of the secondary looped threads forms a very
regular series of loops, each of which is fastened by one end to the
primary looped thread; this secondary thread is not looped around
the primary thread as it appears to be, but is merely fastened
to one side of it by viscid silk. Fourth, — the viscid silk; this is
an amorphous sheet, which fills the spaces between the loops of
the secondary looped thread; it is largely liquid, but when it
is highly magnified irregular threads can be seen in it.

It is easy to infer the function of these four kinds of silk:
the supporting line not only supports the parts fitted for entangling
the prey but communicates to the centre of the web, where the
spider is lying in wait, any disturbance of the web; the primary
looped threads also have two functions, they support the secondary
looped threads and by their elasticity allow an entangled insect
to become involved in other threads; I have seen these threads
stretch to fifty times their first length; the secondary looped
threads support the viscid silk; and the viscid silk clings to any-
thing that touches it.

An interesting prob.em to be solved is the determination of
the source of each of the four kinds of silk in the hackled band
and its support, and the method of spinning the hackled band.
The doubling of the supporting thread shows that it is spun
separately. In the upper part of Fig. 284 are shown several
places where the two parts of the supporting thread are widely
separated; in these cases the spiders did not return to the starting
point after making the attachment disk. It seems probable
that when the hackled band is applied to this supporting thread
the primary loops are made by a movement of the spinnerets,
and that at the same time the secondary loops are formed by
the calamistrum. During this operation silk is issuing from four
spigots; from two of them comes the elastic silk that forms the

297

Superfamily Argiopoidea

„.?"v''

primary loops, and from two others the silk that is combed by
the calamistrum into the secondary loops; in this way a double
band is formed, and to each half is applied a sheet of viscid silk.
On the inner surface of each fore spinneret there is a series of flat-
tened hairs (Fig. 286) which appear as if they were for the purpose

of conducting the silk from the
cribellum to the hackled band, the
series of each side leading to one of
the parts of the double band.

This species is known chiefly as
a house-spider; but at Austin, Tex.,
I found only a few of its webs about
buildings, while it was very common
under stones in the fields. Its web
was not observed in this situation;
Fig. 286. spinneret of filistata but the collecting was done early in

the spring before the spiders had be-
come active. It was one of these spiders taken from under a stone
in the field that made the web shown in Figs. 283 and 284.
The adult males wander about, and as they lack the cribellum
and calamistrum, specimens captured away from their webs
would not be recognized by the beginner as belonging to the
cribellate group of spiders.

£«*4j&:.:. '■

FAMILY DYSDERIDiE (Dys-der'i-dae)

The Dysderids {Dys-der'ids)

The dysderids are six-eyed
spiders which have four con-
spicuous spiracles near the base
of the abdomen, a pair of lung-
slits and a pair of tracheal spir-
acles (Fig. 287). They can be
distinguished from the members
of the following family, which
also have only six eyes and
possess four spiracles, by the
form of the coxae of the first
two pairs of legs, which are
long and cylindrical (Fig. 287).

Fig. 287. DYSDERA INTERRITA

298

Superfamily Argiopoidea

This family is represented in our fauna by only three known
species, which belong to three different genera. These genera
can be separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE DYSDERID^E

A. Each coxa of the legs completely surrounded by lateral

extensions of the sternum. P. 299. Dysdera
AA. Coxal cavities of the usual type.

B. Median eyes forming a nearly straight line with the

anterior lateral eyes. P. 300. Segestria

BB. Median eyes forming a nearly straight line with the

posterior lateral eyes. P. 300. Ariadna

Genus DYSDERA (Dys-de'ra)

This genus is easily distinguished from the other members
of the family that occur in our fauna by the fact that lateral
extensions of the sternum completely surround the coxa of each
leg. The bulb of the palpus of the
male (Fig. 288) is of an unusual
form; it is described in an earlier
chapter (p. 109). Only a single
species occcurs in the United States.

Dysdera interrita (D. in-ter'ri-
ta). — This is an orange-brown
species with a pale abdomen; the
body is one half inch in length;
the more striking features are rep-
resented in Fig. 287. This spider
lives under stones and in similar
situations. It is not considered a
rare species; but 1 have taken only
one specimen in this country. This
1 found at Ithaca, N. Y., in a base-
ment in a web of Tberidion tepidari-
orum; it was completely swathed by
the Tberidion, notwithstanding it
was twice as large as its captor.

In Bermuda I collected many specimens from under stones
in mid-winter. I observed no indication of a web. But Simon

Fig. 288.

palpus of dysdera
interrita

299

Superfamily Argiopoidea

states that the species of Dysdera enclose themselves in an oval,
depressed sac of close, firm tissue, and that the female deposits
her eggs there without enveloping them in an egg-sac. It may
be that the sac is made only on the approach of the egg-laying
period.

Genus SEGESTRIA (Se-ges'tri-a)

This and the following genus are closely allied in structure
and in habits; they differ in the position of the median eyes
as given in the table above.

Segestria pacijica (S. pa-cif'i-ca). — This, our only repre-
sentative of the genus, is quite common on the Pacific coast.
The cephalothorax is brown; the abdomen is nearly white with
reddish brown spots on the middle line, and scattered ones on
the sides. The length of the body is a little over one fifth inch.

Genus ARIADNA (Ar-i-ad'na)

In both this and the preceding genus the body is more elon-
gate and more nearly cylindrical than in Dysdera, the result of
their living in slender tubes. Another striking peculiarity is
that the third pair of legs, as well as the first and second, is
directed forward. In this genus the median eyes are situated
between the posterior lateral. The palpus of the male closely
resembles that of Loxosceles (p. 107). The following is our only
species:

Ariadna bicolor (A. bi'col-or). — This spider measures about
one third inch in length. The cephalothorax and legs are yellow-
ish brown, and the abdomen purplish brown.

The habits of this species are very remarkable. I collected
the specimens that I studied at Agricultural College, Mississippi,
in March. They were hibernating, each in a long, slender tube
in a crack in a boat house. I brought them alive in vials to Ithaca,
where they were left unnoticed till the middle of May. I then
placed each in a hole in a block made by nailing together several
small blocks. The face of the block was painted black, so as to
render any silk that might be spun by the spiders more con-
spicuous. My efforts were rewarded; for each spider made a
nest for me the very first night; nests of such marvellous en-
gineering skill that I have never ceased to wonder at them.

300

Superfamily Argiopoidea

A long, slender tube is built in the hole that serves as a
retreat for the spider. This tube is suspended from a framework
of threads, built at the entrance of the retreat, in such a way that
any disturbance of the exposed parts of the nest is communicated
to the occupant of the tube.

A fine sheet of silk is made surrounding the entrance of the
tube like a collar (Fig. 289). The tubular part of the nest does
not show in the figure on account of the darkness of the retreat.

The most striking feature of the nest, however, is a series
of radiating lines, which begin in the framework supporting the
outer end of the tube, and extend out a considerable distance

Fig. 28g. NEST OF ARIADNA BICOLOR

from the nest. Each of these lines passes over two or more piers,
which keep it suspended a short distance from the face of the block.
There is a set of piers on the edge of the hole in which the tube is
built, these are not well-shown in the figure but are very conspicu-
ous in the specimens; and there is another set a considerable dis-
tance beyond the outer edge of the collar of the tube.

The radiating lines being held some distance from the face
of the block by the supporting piers, are in position to be dis-
turbed by any passing insect. And this disturbance is commu-
nicated to the framework supporting the tube. The spider waits
within the tube with six of its eight legs projecting forward ready
to make a leap. The touching of one of the trap lines by an insect
results like the touching of the spring of a jack-in-the-box. The

Superfamily Argiopoidea

spider comes forth with amazing swiftness, seizes the unlucky
insect, and retreats with it instantly to its lair.

About the first of July one of my specimens removed all of
that part of the nest that was on the face of the block, leaving
only the tube within the hole. She then laid about fifteen eggs.
These were large and were in a spherical mass but not enclosed
in an egg-sac.

Family OONOPID^ (O-o-nop'i-dae)

The Oonopids (O-o-nop'ids)

These are six-eyed spiders which resemble the dysderids in
having four spiracles, a pair of lung-slits and a pair of tracheal
spiracles. But in this family the tracheal spiracles are incon-
spicuous, and the coxae of the four pairs of legs are similar and
nearly globose.

Only three species belonging to this family have been found
in the United States; these represent two different genera, which
can be separated as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE OONOPIDS

A. Abdomen soft. Orchestina

AA. Abdomen covered by a horny shield. Gamasomorpha

Genus ORCHESTINA (Or-ches-ti'na)

Two species of this genus have been found in our fauna.

Orchestina saltitans (O. sal'ti-tans).— - This species was found
by Mr. Banks at Sea Cliff, N. Y. It measures less than one

twentieth inch in length ; the
cephalothorax is whitish,
with a black marginal line
and a black spot around the
eyes; the abdomen is pur-
plish above, quite dark near
the tip; the venter is pale,

Fig. 290. orchestina saltabunda and the sPinnerets are

white. When disturbed

the spider leaped backward.

Orchestina saltabunda (O. sal-ta-bun'da). — This species was

described by Simon from Venezuela. A single male, taken in New

302

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Jersey, is referred to it by Petrunkevitch ('\oa). The female meas-
ures .07 inch in length; the male, .06 inch. A figure of a side view
of the New Jersey specimen and of its palpus is given by Petrun-
kevitch (Fig. 290).

Genus GAMASOMORPHA (Ga-mas-o-mor'pha)

This genus represents that section of the family in which
the abdomen is hard. Only one species has been observed in
:his country.

vuimasomorpha Jloridana (G. flor-i-da'na). This is a small
spider, measuring only one twelfth inch in length. It is reddish
yellow with paler legs. It occurs in Florida.

Family SCYTODIDS* (Scy-tod'i-dae)

The Scytodids (Scy-tod'ids)

The scytodids belong to that portion of the series of six-eyed
spiders in which there is only a single tracheal spiracle. They
differ from the following family, which also possesses this char-
acteristic, by the fact that there is not a distinct suture between
the labium and the sternum. The eyes are all pearly white.

In one of the genera, Plectreurys, there are eight eyes; but the
simplicity of the external reproductive organs which is charac-
teristic of this series, as well as other family characteristics,
distinguishes this genus.

Four genera are .represented in our fauna; these can be sepa-
rated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE SCYTODID/E

A. With eight eyes. P. $04. Plectreurys

AA. With six eyes.

B. Anterior row of eyes in a nearly straight line. 1'. ^04.

DlGUEl 1 A

HI). Anterior row of eyes very strongly recurved.
C. Cephalothorax low or depressed. P. ^04.

1 .OXOSCE] 1 s
CC. Cephalothorax high and subglobose. P. jo6.

Scv roDi s

•This is I he SU ariidet of Simon.

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus PLECTREURYS (Plec-treu'rys)

These spiders differ from all other scytodids in having eight
eyes; they are of medium or large size; the cephalothorax and legs
are black or brown, while the abdomen is brownish gray, clothed
with isolated hairs. The two following species are all that are
known. Nothing is known of their habits.

Pledreurys trisiis. — This species was described from speci-
mens taken in Arizona. The male is less than one third inch in
length; the female, is more than one half inch.

Pledreurys castanea (P. cas-ta'ne-a). — Described from south-
ern California. The female measures one third inch in length;
the male has not been described.

Genus DIGUETIA (Dig-u-e'ti-a)

The members of this genus differ from the other six-eyed
scytodids in having the anterior eyes in a nearly straight line. A
single species has been found in California, others occur in Mexico.

Diguetia canities (D. ca-nit'i-es). — -"The spider is about
three eighths inch long; the cephalothorax brown, the abdomen
brownish yellow covered thickly with white hairs, which also
strongly mark the cephalothorax, suggesting its specific name.
The legs are yellow, with brown rings at the joints, and a similar
ring in the middle of the tibia." (McCook.)

The species was described from specimens taken at San
Bernardino, Cal. Doctor McCook ('Sg-'g^, 11, 135) gives
an account of its remarkable cocooning habits. The mother
spins a series of flattened disks, which are overlaid one upon
another like the tiles upon a roof, and are bound by silken threads
somewhat after the fashion of Metepeira labyrinthea. This
series of cocoons is sometimes three inches or more in length
and is covered with leaves from the plant upon which the string
is suspended. Along the entire length of one side of the string
of cocoons the mother spins a silken tube within which she dwells.
The whole is suspended within a maze of threads and is attached
above to a strong thread.

Genus LOXOSCELES (Lox-os'ce-les)

These are spiders of medium size, of a yellowish or brownish
colour and without conspicuous markings; the anterior row of

304

Superfamily Argiopoidea

eyes is strongly recurved (Fig. 291), and the cephalothorax is
low or depressed (Fig. 292); the palpus of the male is described
on page 109. They are found under bark of dead trees and under
stones on the ground. Simon states that the webs which they
spin are quite large and very irregular, resembling those of Filis-
tata; and that the threads have the appearance of those spun
by spiders having a cribellum and calamistrum. He even sug-
gests that the colulus (Fig. 142, p. 136) may play a role analogous
to that of the cribellum. I have observed our species only in
winter; at this season I found both of them common under stones

Fig. 291.
EYES OF LOXOSCELES

Fig. 292.
PROFILE OF CEPHALO-
THORAX OF LOXOSCELES

Fig. 293. LOXOSCELES RUFESCENS

in Texas. The spiders were frequently found in a silken sac,
which may be a retreat for the winter, like that spun by the
jumping spiders. The silk of which these sacs are made appears
to be hackled.

There are only two species in our fauna, both of which are
restricted to the South.

Loxosceles rufescens (L. ru-fes'cens). — This is the larger
species, measuring one third inch or more in length (Fig. 29}).
The second legs are longer than the fourth. .Montgomery ('08)
states that this species makes a large and irregular web beneath
logs and stones, usually in drier situations; and he describes the
egg-sac, which is discoidal, with diameter longer than the spider's
body. It is sessile, attached to the snare.

Loxosceles unicolor (L. u'ni-col'or). — In this species the male

305

Superfamily Argiopoidea

is less than one fourth and the female about one third inch in
length. The second and fourth pairs of legs are equal in length.

Genus SCYTODES (Scy-to'des)

The spiders of this genus are of small or medium size,
of a pale yellow or white colour, ornamented with black or
gray spots; the anterior row of eyes is strongly recurved;
the cephalothorax is high and subglobose behind and slopes
forward (Fig. 294).

These are tropical or subtropical spiders, which normally
live under stones or rubbish on the ground, where they spin a
small irregular web; a few,
however, have extended their
range northward where they
live in buildings. Only two

Fig. 294. PROFILE OF
CEPHALOTHORAX OF SCYTODES

species have been observed in
the United States.

Scytodes thoracica (S. tho-
rac'i-ca).— This species is not Fis- 2^ scytodes thoracica

uncommon, even in the North, where it is found in cellars
and closets. It measures from one fifth to one fourth inch
in length; the cephalothorax is light yellow, and the ab-
domen white, both marked with black spots, as shown in
Fig. 295. This spider is found in Europe also.

Scytodes longipes (S. lon'gi-pes). — This is a larger species,
the adult female measuring about one third inch in length.
The body is yellow, mottled with brown. The brown markings
form a close net-work on the cephalothorax, but on the abdomen
the spots are more distinct; on the ventral side of the abdomen
there is a prominent V-shaped black mark with the apex

306

Superfamily Argiopoidea

behind. In the adult female there is a pair of dark brown chitin-
ous plates which extend back from the epigastric furrow.

This is a common species in the Antilles and in Tropical
South America. 1 found it at Austin, Tex. In the Bermudas
where I found it common on the walls of a room, it is known as
the dust-spider. It moved slowly, and was easily captured.

Family LEPTONETID^E (Lep-to-net'i-dae)

The Leptonetids (Lep-to-net'ids)

This family includes small, six-eyed spiders, with long legs;
nearly all of the species live in caves. They differ from the scy-
todids, with which they agree in having six eyes and one tracheal
spiracle, in having a distinct suture between the labium and
sternum.

Only three genera, each represented by a single species, are
known to occur in our fauna; these can be separated as follows:

A. Anterior lateral eye of each side contiguous with an an-
terior median eye. Leptoneta
AA. Anterior lateral eyes separate from the anterior median
eyes.
B. Lateral eyes forming two diverging lines. Usofila
BB. Lateral eyes not forming diverging lines. Ochyrocera

Genus LEPTONETA (Lep-to-ne'ta)

Our only species of this genus is from
Ml. Diablo, Gal. Fig. 296 represents the
arrangement of the eyes.

Leptoneta calif ornica (L. cal-i-for'ni-ca). —
Only the female has been described. It
measures one tenth inch in length. The eyes of leptoxeta

■ , , , , , (after Banks)

cephalotnorax and sternum are red-brown,
both with a black margin; the eyes are on black spots. The ab-
domen is gray above, marked transversely with blackish behind.

Genus USOFILA (U-sofi-la)

Only one species has been found in this country.

Usofila gracilis (U. grac'i-lis). — This small spider measures

307

Superfamily Argiopoidea

but little more than one twenty-fifth of an inch in length. Its
form is well-shown by the accompanying figure by Doctor Marx
('91 ), who described the species (Fig. 297). It was found in caves
in California.

Genus OCHYROCERA (Och-y-roc'e-ra)

A single species from Olympia, Wash., has been placed in
this genus by Mr. Banks. Figure 298 represents the arrangement
of the eyes in this genus.

Ochyrocera pacifica (O. pa-cif'i-ca). This tiny spider meas-
ures about one twentieth of an inch in length. Nothing has been
published regarding its habits.

Family PRODIDOMIDS (Prod-i-dom-i'dae)

The Prodidomids {Pro-did' o-mids)

The prodidomids are two-clawed, eight-eyed spiders, with
dissimilar eyes in three rows, and very robust chelicerae, which
are furnished with very long and slender claws (Fig. 299). Only
one genus is represented in our fauna.

Genus PRODI DOMUS (Pro-did'o-mus)

These are small spiders measuring from one twelfth to one
sixth inch in length. They live under stones and in other dark
and dry places.

Prodidomus rufus (P. ru'fus). — This is an extremely rare
species and is the only representative of the family that has
been found in the United States. It occurs in cellars and in dark
closets in houses in the South; it makes a tubular web or mesh
of threads. For a detailed description of the species see Banks
('92 c).

Family DRASSIDS (Dras'si-dae)

The Dr ass ids (Dras'sids)

The Drassidae includes those spiders having eight eyes
arranged in two rows and only two tarsal claws in which the form
of the body and the attitude of the legs are not those charac-
teristic of the crab-spiders, and which differ from the clubionids

308

Fig. 207. USOFILA GRACILIS a, male, en-
larged b, sternum, labium, and endites of male
c, palpus of male it, female, enlarged e, ster-
num, labium, and endites of female

Fig. 298. EYES
OF OCHYROCERA

(after Cambridge)

Fig. agg. EYES AND CHELICERj*
OF PRODIDOMUS RUFUS

(after Hanks)

30()

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in having the fore spinnerets widely separated; the tarsi are fur-
nished with bundles of terminal tenent hairs as in the clubionids.

Most drassids are found under stones or bark or in moss; a
few live on the leaves of plants which they roll like the clubionids,
but they do not construct a definite tube like that of the clubionids
or at the most they spin an irregular retreat at the time of oviposi-
tion. Some of the species that live under stones make a silken
sac within which they live and in which the egg-sac is made.

Our genera can be separated by the following table, which
is largely based on one published by Mr. Banks.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE DRASSIDS

A. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae keeled or lobed.

B. Posterior row of eyes much wider, i. e., extending farther

on each side, than the anterior row. and strongly

recurved. P. 320. Gnaphosa

BB. Posterior row of eyes barely wider than the anterior row

and straight or only slightly recurved. P. 321. Callilepis

AA. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae unarmed or

with one or two teeth.

B. Median furrow of the cephalothorax wanting; cephalo-

thorax reddish yellow; posterior row of eyes slightly

recurved. P. 319. Sergiolus

BB. Median furrow of the cephalothorax present; posterior

row of eyes rarely recurved.

C. Body white with two broad, black, longitudinal

stripes extending nearly the whole length of it

above. P. 319. Cesonia

CC. Body not coloured as in Cesonia.

D. Hind spinnerets plainly two-jointed, and longer than

the fore spinnerets. P. 322. Teminius

DD. Hind spinnerets not plainly two-jointed and not

longer than the fore spinnerets.

E. Posterior row of eyes slightly recurved; posterior

median eyes widely separate; no spine above

on the base of the third and fourth tibiae.

F. Posterior row of eyes plainly broader than the

anterior row; posterior lateral eyes barely,

if any, larger than the posterior median eyes;

310

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the lateral eyes more than the diameter of
one of them apart. P. 315. Pcfcilochroa
FF. Posterior row of eyes barely longer than the ante-
rior row; posterior lateral eyes much larger than
the posterior median eyes ; lateral eyes less than the
diameter of one of them apart. P. 318. Eilica
EE. Posterior row of eyes straight or procurved.
F. Posterior row of eyes plainly procurved ; posterior
median eyes oval.
G. Posterior row of eyes barely longer than the
anterior row; posterior median eyes ap-
proximate and larger than the posterior
lateral eyes. P. 314. Megamyrmecion
GG. Posterior row of eyes plainly longer than the
anterior row; posterior median eyes rather
widely separate.
H. Upper margin of the furrow of the chelic-
erae usually with three prominent teeth;
the lower, with two. P. ]n. Drassodes
HH. Upper margin of the furrow of the chelic-
erae unarmed or with one or two small
teeth; the lower, unarmed or with one or
two very small teeth. P. 112. Drassus
FF. Posterior row of eyes little if at all procurved,
and usually barely longer than the anterior row.
G. Posterior median eyes large, oval, contiguous
or nearly so; no spine above on base of the
tibia of the third and of the fourth legs,
usually with but one or two spines above
the tibia of the first legs. P. 316. Zelotes
GG. Posterior median eyes smaller, nearly round,
and plainly separate; a spine above on the
base of the tibia of the third and of the fourth
legs; usually four to six spines below the tibia
of the first legs. P. 318. IIhrpyllus

GGG. Posterior median eyes smaller, oval, well
separated; no spines above on the base of the
tibia of either the third or the fourth legs;
ten spines on the lower side of the tibia of
the first legs. P. ^14. Drassinella

3'i

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus DRASSUS (Dras'sus)

The margins of the furrow of the chelicera are unarmed or
furnished with one or more very small teeth. The posterior row
of eyes is plainly procurved, and is longer than the anterior row;
the posterior median eyes are oval, and are usually farther from
the lateral eyes than from each other. The median ocular area
is longer than wide, rarely subquadrate, and its sides are parallel.
The space between the lateral eyes of each side is a little less
than that between the anterior median and the posterior median
eyes.

The species of Drassus are quite uniform in colour, varying
from reddish brown to a pale yellow; and they are clothed with
soft, white, or yellow hairs. Sometimes the abdomen is marked
with faint spots and chevrons

These spiders are found under
stones, more rarely under bark and
in fissures of rocks. Nine species
have been described from the United
States; of these the following is the
most common.

Drassus neglectus
lec'tus). — The adult
nearly one half inch
it is light gray, with

neg-

(D.
female is
in length;
short fine

Fig. 300.
DRASSUS NEGLECTUS, FEMALE

Fig. 301. EPIGYNUM OF
DRASSUS NEGLECTUS

hairs all over its body; in alcohol the cephalothorax and legs
are brownish; the cephalothorax is very narrowly margined with
black; the abdomen is either without markings, or with four spots
on the muscle-impressions, between which there may be a longi-

312

Superfamily Argiopoidea

tudinal band, and on the hind half there may be faint chevrons
(Fig. 300). The most distinctive characteristic is the form of the
epigynum (Fig. 301).

The male is smaller and more slender. Figure 302 represents
the palpus, as figured by Emerton; the char-
acteristic features of this palpus are the great
length of the tibia and the shape of the apophysis
at the distal end of the tibia.

This is one of the most common members
of the family. It lives under stones and other
objects lying on the ground. It makes a large
transparent bag of silk in which it lives, and
within which the egg-sac is made. The female
stays in this bag with the egg-sac until the
spiderlings emerge from it. Emerton states
that early in the summer a male and female
often live together in the nest, even before the
female is mature. I found a female in a bag Fig i02 PALPUS
with an egg-sac on July 20th; in this case the of drassus

A A + „ + NEGLECTUS

young emerged August 21st. (after Emerton)

Genus DRASSODES (Dras-so'des)

This genus is closely allied to Drassus, in fact the species
included in it were formerly placed in Drassus. In Drassodes
the margins of the furrow of the chelicera are armed with quite
prominent teeth, of which there are three on the upper margin
and two on the lower. In the males there is a shield on the base

of the abdomen.

The following is our only com-
mon species; the male of a second
species has been described by Mr.
Banks from California.

Drassodes robustus (D. ro-bus'
tus). — The adult female meas-
ures from one third to nearly one
half inch in length. It is most eas-
ily recognized by the form of the
epigynum (Fig. 303); this is light coloured in the middle with a
curved, dark ridge on each side; sometimes the tips of these

Fig. 303. EPIGYNUM OF
DRASSODES ROBUSTUS

313

PALPUS OF DRAS
SODES ROBUSTUS

Superfamily Arglopoidea

ridges meet on the middle line as shown in the figure, but some-
times they are more or less widely separated.

The male is much smaller than the
female. Figure 304 represents the palpus;
the tibia is short and has a short curved
process that extends over the cymbium on
the upper side; the bulb is large.

Genus MEGAMYRMECION
(Meg-a-myr-me'ci-on)

The cephalothorax is ovate, with the
front narrow, and with a long median furrow.
Fig. 304. The anterior eyes are close together, in a

strongly procurved line, and the median eyes
are larger than the lateral ones. The pos-
terior eyes are in a very strongly procurved semicircular
line, which is not at all longer than the anterior line; the
median eyes are oblique, ovate or angulate, and nearer to each
other than to the lateral eyes. The clypeus is a little wider
than the anterior eyes. The chelicerae are of moderate size,
with the lower margin of the furrow unarmed, and with two
minute teeth on the upper margin. The labium is longer than
wide, truncate, and extends beyond the middle of the endite.
The fore spinnerets are very long and are furnished with nine
or ten large spinning tubes placed in a semicircle.
The following is our only species:

Megamyrmecion calijomicum (M. cal-i-for'ni-cum). — The
female measures one fourth inch or more in length, and is of a
quite uniform grayish colour. It occurs in California.

Genus DRASS1NELLA (Dras-si-nel'la)

The posterior row of eyes is longer than the anterior row
and is straight; the posterior median eyes are nearer to the pos-
terior lateral eyes than to each other. The lateral eyes of each
side are less than their diameter apart. The tarsi are slightly
scopulate. The labium is broader than long. The spinnerets
are not very long.

Two species are known from the United States.

314

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Drassinella lepidus (D. lep'i-dus). — The female measures
about one sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax is uniform
reddish in colour; the eyes are partly surrounded with black; the
ibdomen is pale grayish, with a central darker stripe which
ivers the whole of the tip of the abdomen and is expanded on
ach side somewhat before the middle to surround an impressed
dot; the legs, mouth-parts, and sternum are reddish, the latter
with a brownish edge; the venter is gray, darker near the tip.
The species was described by Mr. Banks from Shreveport, La.

Drassinella modesta (D. mo-des'ta). — The female measures
a little less than one sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax
is dull yellowish brown; the abdomen is dark gray above, with
black hair, the venter gray. The abdomen is nearly twice as long
as broad, truncate at base, and pointed behind. The species
occurs on the Santa Catalina Island, Cal.

Genus PCEC1LOCHROA (Pce-ci-loch'ro-a)

The anterior eyes are close together, in a procurved or nearly
straight line, and with the median eyes more or less larger than the
lateral eyes. The posterior eyes form a long line distant from the
anterior eyes. The median ocular area is longer than wide, and
narrower in front than behind. The space between the lateral
eyes of each side is not at all narrower than that between anterior
median and posterior median eyes.

Three species occur in our fauna, one in the East and two
in the West.

Pcecilochroa montana (P. mon-ta'na). — The female is about
one third inch in length. The cephalothorax and legs are dark
brown. The abdomen is black with a pair of white spots near
the front end and another pair across the middle nearly united.

The male measures about one fifth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is dark brown, covered with white hairs. The
abdomen is black with a narrow white band across the middle, a
wider white band across the front end, with a little black showing
in front of it, and a white band at the hinder end over the
spinnerets.

This species was described by Mr. Emerton, from New Eng-
land.

Pcecilochroa pacifica (P. pa-cif'i-ca). — The female measures

315

Superfamily Argiopoidea

a little more than one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax
and legs are reddish, the latter darker toward the tips; the ab-
domen is black with a broad white stripe on each side, reaching
from the base to beyond the middle, where the two are connected ;
there are some indistinct pale chevrons above the black spinnerets;
the venter is black with a large basal area pale.

This species was described from California.

Pcecilochroa minuta (P. mi-nu'ta).— Of this species only
the male has been described. It measures one sixth inch in
length. The cephalothorax is uniform reddish yellow; the legs
and palpi are a trifle paler; the abdomen is black with short white
hairs and some longer black ones at the base; the sternum is
yellowish; the venter with a pale streak on each side.

A single specimen was described from Texas.

Genus ZELOTES (Ze-lo'tes)

The cephalothorax is ovate, very much narrowed in front,
and furnished with a median furrow. The anterior eyes are
near together, in a procurved line, and equal in size or with the
median eyes a little smaller. The posterior eyes are in a straight
or nearly straight line, which is a little or not at all wider than
the anterior line; the eyes of this row are equidistant or frequently
with the median eyes farther from the lateral eyes than from each
other. The clypeus is wider than the anterior eyes. The upper
margin of the furrow of the chelicera is furnished with one or
with two teeth, the lower margin is unarmed or furnished with a
small tooth.

This is the largest genus of the family Drassidae, including
one hundred and fifty described species; fourteen of these have
been found in our fauna of which the following are among the
more common ones.

Zelotes ater (Z. a'ter). — The female is nearly one third
inch in length; the male is smaller. This is a deep glossy
black species without markings; sometimes, especially in the
young, the tarsi and the lower side of the abdomen is yellowish
brown.

This is our most common species of this genus and is widely
distributed.

Zelotes rufulus (Z. ru'fu-lus). — The length of the body varies

316

Superfamily Argiopoidea

from one fourth to one third inch in length. The colour is light
reddish brown without markings, the abdomen paler than the
cephalothorax. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig.
305. Emerton states that the form of the epigynum varies in
shape, that in some individuals the front of it is nearly straight.
He has also figured the palpus of the male (Fig. 306).

Mr. Banks, who described this
species, states that the egg-sac is at- .-•■-' i^'- ;-,

tached to the under side of stones;
and that it consists of two circular
sheets of silk between which are
placed the eggs. The outer sheet is
often covered with dirt or mud so as
to resemble the stones.

ZeJotes frigidus (Z. frig'i-dus).
The cephalothorax is brownish yellow
with the margin black; abdomen
above and below blackish, with the

.. . .. , Fig. 30s. EPIGYNUM

two lines on the venter nearly parallel; of zelotes rufulus

Fig. 306. PALPUS OF
MALE OF ZELCJ] I
RUFULUS (after Emerton)

507.
EPIGYNTM Ol ZELOTES FRIGIDUS

the body is covered with black hairs. The form of the epigy-
num of the female is shown in Fig. 307. The length of
the body of both male and female is a little less than one
fifth inch.

3J7

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus HERPYLLUS (Her-pyPlus)

In this genus, which is closely allied to Zelotes, the two rows
of eyes are nearly straight and widely separated; the eyes of each
row are quite evenly spaced. The anterior middle eyes are larger

than any others. The posterior
median eyes are a little smaller
than the posterior lateral eyes.

Eight species have been de-
scribed from the United States;
but only one of them is widely
distributed.

HerpyUus vasijer (H. vas'i-
fer).— -The body is black with
white or pinkish markings along
the middle of the back (Fig. 308).
In alcohol the light stripe on the
cephalothorax turns to brown.
The abdominal markings consist
of a band on the basal two thirds
and a spot near the tip. The
band is slightly narrowed in the basal portion, and greatly and
suddenly narrowed near the hind end. The lower side of the ab-
domen is dark at the sides and light in the middle; there are
two narrow, parallel, faint lines extending from the epigy-
num almost to the spinnerets. The legs except the femora,
are somewhat paler than the body.

'The adult female is one third inch in length, the male is much
smaller, but is similarly marked.

This species is found under stones and rubbish on the ground,
between boards, and in crevices in dark places. It runs with ex-
ceeding rapidity. I found its egg-sacs under boards in a barn; they
are flat and snowy-white, resembling those of Gnaphosa gigantea.
This species is widely distributed throughout the United
States; it is the HerpyUus ecclesiasticus of Hentz.

Fig. 308. HERPYLLUS VASIFER

Genus EIL1CA (Ei-li'ca)

This genus can be distinguished by the characters given in
the table above. It is represented in our fauna by a single species,

3.8

Superfamily Argiopoidea

found in Florida, of which only the male is described. This is
the Eilica bicolor of Banks.

Genus SERGIOLUS (Ser-gi'o-lus)

The cephalothorax is narrow, oblong, slightly convex, a little
narrowed in front, and without a median furrow. The anterior
eyes are close together, in a straight line, and with the median larger
than the lateral eyes. The posterior eyes are small, in a slightly re-
curved line. The median ocular area is trapeziform, and a little
longer than wide. The clypeus is at least twice as wide as the an-
terior eyes." The chelicerae are of moderate size, with the margins
of the furrow unarmed; the lower margin indistinct, the upper sin-
uous and hairy. The labium is nearly three times as long as wide

Three species occur in the United States.

Sergiolus variegatus (S. va-ri-e-ga'tus). — This brightly col-
oured species is easily recognized by the markings of its abdomen.
The cephalothorax is bright orange, a little darker toward the
eyes. The abdomen is black with three transverse white stripes
and a T-shaped white mark between the first and second stripes.
The female is one fourth inch in length.

This is a very widely distributed species.

Sergiolus bicolor (S. bi'co-lor). — The length of the body of
the female is one third inch. The cephalothorax and legs are
reddish yellow; the basal half of the abdomen pale gray, the apical
half and spinnerets, jet black; the ventral aspect of the abdomen
is pale gray except the apical two fifths, which is black, but broadly
indented by the gray in the middle.

This is a southern species.

Sergiolus cyaneoventris (S. cy-an-e-o-ven'tris). — The cephalo-
thorax is bright yellowish red. There is a white band across the
base of the abdomen, and one across the middle. Between these
white bands the abdomen is shining brown; and behind the middle
band it is iridescent black or greenish. The venter is bluish black.

This species is found in Florida.

Genus CESON1A (Ce-so'ni-a)

The cephalothorax is low, very much narrowed in front,
and bears a slender and short median furrow. The two rows of

319

Superfamily Argiopoidea

eyes are widely separated and nearly straight. The median
eyes of each row are farther apart than they are from the lateral
eyes. The clypeus is at least twice as wide as the anterior eyes.
The fore spinnerets are longer than the hind ones and stout.
The following is the only known species.

Cesonia bilincata
— This is a very
species on account
The
inch

(C. bi-lin-e-a'ta).

easily recognized

of its markings.

female measures about one fourth

in length. The body is white with

Fig. 3og.
CESONIA BILINEATA

two broad, black, longitudinal stripes ex-
tending nearly the whole length of the
cephalothorax and abdomen above (Fig.
309), and with a black stripe near each
lateral margin of the lower side of the
abdomen. The legs are gray with white
hairs. The spinnerets are long.

The species is widely distributed
throughout the Atlantic region. It
flat egg-sac, which it loosely fastens to

was

makes a snowy-white

the lower side of a stone. A female with her

taken in this situation at Ithaca, N. Y., in August.

egg-sac

Genus GNAPHOSA (Gna-pho'sa)

This and the following genus differ from all other members
of the family found in our fauna in having the lower margin of
the furrow of the che-
liceras armed with a
broad keel or lobe (Fig.
310). This genus can
be distinguished by the
fact that the posterior
series of eyes is much

wider than ' the anterior Fi° ^ chelicer.e of gxaphosa

series and is strongly recurved. The posterior lateral eyes are
not much larger than the posterior median eyes.

The two following species are our most common representa-
tives.

Gnaphosa gigantea (G. gi-gan'te-a).-- This is a robust species

320

Superfamily Argiopoidea

measuring one half inch in length. It is of a rusty black colour;
in alcohol the cephalothorax and legs are dark reddish brown and
the abdomen gray. The whole body is covered with fine black
hairs. The middle and hind pairs of spinnerets are either greatly
reduced in size or are entirely wanting, in which case the
spider has only two spinnerets; most of the specimens of
this species in our collection are in this condition. The
structure of the epigynum of the female is shown in Fig. 311.

This is a widely distributed
species in the North; its range ex-
tending from the Atlantic to the Pa-
cific. It lives under stones and leaves.
Its egg-sac is snowy-white and flat;

Fig. 311. EPIGYNUM OF
GXAPHOSA GIGAXTEA

I ig $12. GNAPHOSA GI
GANTEA AND EGG-SAC

its diameter is as great or greater than the length of the spider.

On July 20th I found at Ithaca, N. V.. several females, each
with an egg-sac. under stones in a dry pasture. In each case the
female was resting on the egg-sac with some of her legs wrapped
around it (Fig. 312). From one of these egg-sacs the spiderlings
emerged August 21st.

Gnaphosa scricata (G. ser-i-ca'ta). — This is a smaller specie,
the length of the body being a little less than one fourth inch in
both sexes. The cephalothorax and legs are rufous; the abdomen,
bluish black. There is a small black ring around each eye.

This is a widely distributed southern species. It is common,
in the region where it occurs, on the ground or under stones and
leaves. It runs with great rapidity.

Genus CALLILEPIS (Cal-lil'e-pis)

The lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed
with a broad keel or lobe Fig. $13 as m Gnaphosa: but this genus

$21

Superfamily Argiopoidea

differs from Gnaphosa in that the posterior row of eyes is barely
wider than the anterior row and is straight or only slightly re-
curved. The posterior lateral eyes are plainly larger than the

posterior median eyes.

The spiders of this genus are
very active; they live under stones
where they spin a slight irregular
web. The egg-sac is planoconvex
and resembles /that of Zelotes but is
always white.

Our best known species is the
following:

Callilepis imbecilla (C. im-be-
cil'la). — Although this is a small
spider, measuring only about one
fourth inch in length, it is striking
in appearance owing to its strongly
contrasting colours.

The cephalothorax is bright
orange-brown and the abdomen blue-black. The armature of
the chelicera is shown in Fig. 313.

Fig. 313. CHELICERA OF
CALLILEPIS IMBECILLA

Genus TEMINIUS (Te-min'i-us)

The members of this genus are easily distinguished from
other drassids by the form of the spinnerets. The hind spin-
nerets are much longer than the fore spinnerets; plainly two-
jointed, with a long, slender apical segment. The fore spinnerets,
although quite widely separated at the base, are not so widely
separated as is usual in the Drassidae; in fact they are not more
widely separated than are the hind spinnerets. The tarsi and
metatarsi of the first, second and third legs are heavily scopulate.
In the two species that I have before me, the fore tibiae are devoid
of spines.

There is some doubt regarding the position of this genus.
Simon suggests that the species placed here should be included
in his genus Syrisca of the family Clubionidas; but owing to the
comparatively wide separation of the fore spinnerets 1 leave it
in the Drassidae.

The species are large, measuring about one half inch in length,

322

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and are dark coloured; some of them at least have yellowish mark-
ings on the abdomen. Three species have been described from
the Far West; T. affinis from Texas, T. continental is from Utah,
and T. nigriceps from Colorado. 1 collected at Austin, Tex.,
what appears to be a fourth, undescribed species.

Family ZODARIID/E (Zod-a-ri'i-dse)

The Zodariids (Zo-da'ri-ids)

The Zodariidae is barely represented in our fauna, only three
rare species being known.

It is difficult to characterize this family without going into
considerable detail, as certain characters which are considered
of prime importance in other families are subject to exceptions
here. The legs are nearly equal in size; the internal face of the
endites is not furnished with a serrula, but bears an apical scopula;
the rostrum is membranous and furnished above with a band of
hairs.

Our three species represent three distinct genera; these can
be separated as follows:

A. With only two spinnerets. P. 323. Lutica

AA. With six spinnerets.

B. With three tarsal claws; fore spinnerets much longer
than the hind spinnerets; hind spinnerets short. P. 324.

Storena
BB. With only two tarsal claws. Hind spinnerets quite

long. P. 324. HOMALONYCHUS

Genus LUTICA (Lu'ti-ca)

The most striking characteristic is the possession of only
two spinnerets, the hind pair; the other four are aborted, and
only indicated by tufts of hair. Only one species is known.

Lutica maculata (L. mac-u-la'ta). — The species was described
from a specimen received from Lake Klamath, Ore. It can be
easily recognized by the accompanying figures (Fig. 314).
which were drawn by Doctor Marx ('9O. who described
the species. The spider measured a little more than one fifth
inch in length.

32 3

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus STORENA (Sto-re'na)

A striking feature of this genus is the great length of the
fore spinnerets, and the shortness of the other spinnerets. There
are three tarsal claws. This is a widely distributed genus; but
only a single species occurs in this country.

Storeiia americana (S. a-mer-i-ca'na). — Only the female has
been described. It measures only one third inch in length.
The cephalothorax is reddish; the
abdomen is greenish yellow marked /--~~--x

Fig. 314. LUTICA MACULATA a, female

enlarged b, face c, sternum, labium, and

endites d, spinnerets (after Marx)

Fig. 315. STORENA AMERICANA
a, female, enlarged b, face c. ster-
num, labium, and endites d, epigy-
num (after Marx)

with black, as shown in Fig. 315, which is a copy of one
by Doctor Marx ('91), who described the species. The species was
found in Georgia.

Genus HOMALONYCHUS (Ho-ma-lon'y-chus)

This agrees with the preceding genus in the presence of six
spinnerets; but differs in having only two tarsal claws, and in
having the hind spinnerets quite long.

324

Superfamiiy Argiopoidea

Homahnychus sehnopoidcs (H. se-len-o-poi'des). — This is a
Mexican species which extends into the southwestern part of
our country. It was originally described by Doctor Marx (91),

o C^

O O

o o

Fig. 316. HOMALONYCHUS SELENOPOIDES o, female,

enlarged b, eyes seen from above c, sternum, labium, and

endites d, epigynum e, tarsus /, auxiliary claw (.after Marx)

and can be easily recognized by his figures of it (Fig. 316). It
measures about two thirds of an inch in length.

Family PHOLCID^E (Phol'ci-dae

The Pholcids

The pholcids are spiders with very long legs, which build
irregular webs in dark places, in which they hang with the back

32 5

Superfamily Argiopoidea

downward. The tarsi of the legs are furnished with three claws.
There are usually eight eyes, but in one of our genera there are only
six and in another one pair is represented by very minute vestiges.

There is a group of three eyes on each side;
each group consists of an anterior lateral and
two posterior eyes, all of which are pearly
white; the anterior median eyes, when present,
are isolated, smaller and dark in colour. The
claw of the chelicerae is short and is opposed
by a tooth-like projection of the basal seg-
ment (Fig. 317). The endites, in all of our
genera, are convergent and contiguous at

Fig. 317. CHELICERA

OF PHOLCUS PHAL-

ANGIODES

Fig. 31S. ENDITES OF PHOLCUS

the extremity (Fig. 318). The abdomen varies greatly in
form.

Six genera are represented in our fauna; these can be separated
by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE PHOLCID/E

A. With only six eyes, or with the vestiges of one pair, the
anterior median exceedingly minute.
B. Eyes situated on a very prominent eminence, and not
arranged in two widely separated groups. P. 327.

Modisimus

BB. Eyes not situated on a prominent eminence but arranged

in two widely separated groups of three each. P. 327.

Spermophora
AA. With eight distinct eyes.

B. Abdomen elongate. P. 328. Pholcus

BB. Abdomen globose.

C. Femur of the first legs not twice the length of the

326

Superfamily Argiopoidea

cephalothorax, and shorter than the femur of the

fourth legs. P. 320. Pholcophora

CC. Femur of the first legs twice as long as the cephalothorax.

D. Posterior row of eyes slightly procurved; the femur

of the first legs is longer than that of the fourth.

P. 330. Psilochorus

DD. Posterior row of eyes slightly recurved; the femur

of the first legs is shorter than that of the fourth

P. 329. Physocyclus

Genus MODISIMUS (Mo-dis'i-mus)

The anterior median eyes are reduced to mere vestiges so
that there are apparently only six eyes. These, the lateral eyes
and the posterior median, are not
arranged in two groups as is usu-
ally the case in this family.
The eyes are situated on a very
prominent eminence.

These are tropical or sub-
tropical spiders; only one species
has been taken in our fauna.

Modisimus iexanus (M. tex-
a'nus). — The cephalothorax is
pale yellowish, with a broad
median black stripe, tapering a
little behind (Fig. 319). Eyes
on black spots, but the middle
of the eye-tubercle is pale. Ab-
domen pale with many black and

white spots. The epigynum pro- Fig 3IQ modisimus texanus
jects forward in a sharp point.

1 collected several specimens of this species at Austin,
Tex., in March. One of these, a female, was carrying a bundle
of eggs. The species proved to be a new one; and was subse-
quently described, at my request, by Mr. Banks.

Genus SPERMOPHORA (Sper-moph'o-ra)

The number and arrangement of the eyes will serve to dis-
tinguish this genus from the other pholcids occurring in our

327

Superfamily Argiopoidea

fauna. There are only six eyes, the anterior median being absent.
The eyes present are not situated on a prominence, and are
arranged in two widely separated groups of three each. The ab-
domen is short and rounded.

Only one species has been described from the United States.

Spermophora meridianalis (S. me-rid-i-a-na'lis). — The body
of the adult female measures about one twelfth inch in length;
it is white with a pair of pale gray spots on the thorax and two
or three pairs on the abdomen. The legs are long and slender.

This is a house-spider living in closets, in dark corners,
and under furniture. The female carries her mass of eggs about,
clinging to them with her chelicerae.

Genus PHOLCUS (Phol'cus)

The anterior median eyes are much closer to each other than

to the anterior lateral
eyes. The median
ocular area is trapezi-
forrri and not at all or
not much wider than
long. The abdomen
is elongate.

A single common

species represents this

genus in our fauna;

*-5k / a second species is

found in Florida.

Pholcus phalang-
ioides (P. pha-lan-gi-
oi'des). — This species
is easily distinguished
from all other pholcids
found in the United
States by its larger
size and the elongated
form of the abdomen
(Fig. 320). The body
is one quarter of an

inch long, and the longest legs two inches. The colour of the

body is pale brown.

328

Fig. 320. PHOLCUS PHALANGIODES

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The great length of the legs causes this spider to resemble,
somewhat, a harvestman (Pbalangium), and suggested the specific
name. It is a common house-spider, especially in the warmer
regions; but it is also found in the North. It prefers cellars and
other dark locations.

It spins a very large, loose web. The spider hangs in its
web with the abdomen directed upward; and when alarmed
shakes its web violently or swings itself around rapidly. The
egg-sac is exceedingly thin, in fact it is invisible except on close
examination. The eggs are carried by the chelicerae, as shown
in the figure.

"tov

Genus PHOLCOPHORA (Phol-coph'o-ra)

All of the eight eyes are present ; the anterior row is procurved ;
the anterior median eyes are but little smaller than the anterior
lateral; the posterior row of eyes is moderately recurved.

Only one species has been described.

Phohophora americana (P. a-mer-i-ca'na). — The length of
the body is a little more than one twelfth inch. The cephalo-
thorax is pale yellowish, darker on the head, and with black
spots around the eyes. The abdomen is pale beneath and dark
gray above. The body is clothed with large stiff bristles, which
are most numerous on the abdomen.

This species was discovered in Colorado.

Genus PHYSOCYCLUS (Phy-soc'y-clus)

The eight eyes are all present; the anterior median eyes are
several times farther removed from the posterior median eyes
than they are from the anterior lateral; the posterior row of eyes
is slightly recurved; the femur of the first pair of legs is shorter
than that of the fourth.

Only two species of this genus are found in this country;
and one of these is restricted to the Southwestern States. The
more common species is the following:

Physocyclus globosus (P. glo-bo'sus). — The length of the
body of the female is about one sixth inch. The cephalothorax
is broader than long; the eyes are borne on a prominent elevation;
the abdomen is as high as long. The cephalothorax is yellow

J2Q

Superfamily Argiopoidea

with a brownish middle line; the abdomen is yellowish brown
with many small black flecks.

This species is widely distributed in the warmer parts of our
country. It is a house-spider. I found it in a web like that of
Theridion in corners of outbuildings in Florida. The web is
very light.

Genus PS I LOCHORUS (Psil-o-cho'rus)

The four anterior eyes are nearly contiguous and are in a
procurved line; the posterior row is also slightly procurved. The
chelicerae of the male are armed on the outer margin with a long
curved tooth.

Only one species occurs in the United States.

Psilocborus pullulus (P. pul'lu-lus). — The length of the body
is about one tenth inch. The cephalothorax and legs are yellow;
the eyes are surrounded with black, and there is a forked black
mark behind the eyes. The abdomen is gray. In the male
there is on the outer margin of the chelicera near the base a strong
curved tooth. The abdomen is very greatly arched and pro-
jects far behind the spinnerets.

Family THERIDIIDiE (Ther-i-di'i-dae)

The Comb-footed Spiders

The most common of all
house-spiders, the one that
most often spins a tangled
maze of threads in the cor-
ners of neglected rooms, is
Theridion tepidariorum, a
representative of the typical
genus of this family; this
spider will serve well, there-
fore, as an example of the

Fig. 321. THERIDION TEPIDARIORUM r ., /T^. N

family (Fig. 321).
The comb-footed spiders are, with some exceptions, sedentary
spiders which spin webs to catch their prey and in which to place
their egg-sacs. Their webs are composed of threads extending

330

g
<

—

c
o

331

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in all directions with no apparent regularity (Fig. 322); and the
spider hangs in its web with its back downward.

These spiders have eight eyes and three tarsal claws. They
are distinguished from other eight-eyed and three-clawed spiders,
in fact from all other spiders, by the presence, on the tarsus of
the fourth pair of legs, of a distinct comb, consisting of a row
of strong, curved, and toothed setae. Usually this comb is very
distinct (Fig. 323) ; but in some forms, as in Argyrodes (Fig. 324)
it is considerably reduced.

The comb is used for flinging silk, often in a quite liquid
state, over the entangled prey. As the presence of this tarsal
comb distinguishes these spiders from all others, I propose the
term comb-footed spiders as a popular designation of the family.

Fig. 323. COMB OF THERIDION TEPIDARIORUM

Fig. 324. COMB OF ARGYRODES TRIGONUM

It should be noted that the tarsal comb is quite distinct from
the calamistrum of the cribellate spiders, that organ being borne
by the metatarsi.

The comb-footed spiders are also distinguished by the fact
that the chelicerae lack a lateral condyle, and that the tarsus
of the male palpus is deprived of a paracymbium, which is rarely
wanting in the allied families following.

In certain genera the males possess a stridulating organ
(Fig. 325). This is composed of a chitinous, curved border,

332

Superfamily Argiopoidea

armed with teeth, on that part of the abdomen that overhangs
the thorax, and of a plate marked with numerous, fine, trans-
verse striae on each side of that part of the thorax overlapped
by the abdomen. The abdomen is freely movable up and down;
and by rubbing the teeth on the abdomen across the striae on the
thorax a feeble sound is produced.

While several species live in houses and other protected
places, a larger number live on plants in the fields. Most species
build irregular webs of the type built by the house-spider men-
tioned above; but some {Argyrodes) live
as commensals in the webs of other
spiders; and a few (Euryopis) do not live
in webs and spin very
little, but are found
under stones, or in moss ^^^y-i
and leaves, and run with ^r ijy £r^ V
great rapidity.

b _ r r , • Fig. 325. STRIDULATING ORGANS OF ASAGENA

One genus of this
family, Latrodedus, is of especial interest as to it belong those
spiders which in all countries where they occur are greatly
feared on account of the supposed deadly nature of their bite;
a single species of this genus occurs in the Southern States.

Most of the silk spun by the comb-footed spiders is of the
plain type; but occasionally a viscid thread is used. A speci-
men of Steatoda borealis which 1 had in a cage spun threads upon
which the viscid drops could be seen with a hand lens. It has
been shown by Apstein ('89) that the Theridiidae agree with the
Argiopidae in the possession of the aggregate silk glands which
are supposed to be the source of the viscid silk.

But the most characteristic silk of the theridiids is that used
for enveloping their prey; this is thrown over their victims by
the comb on the hind tarsi, and is supposed to be derived from
the lobed silk glands, which have been found only in this family.
These glands open through a spigot without a tip on the hind
spinnerets (Apstein '89).

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE THERIDIID/E

A. Lateral eyes of each side widely separate.

B. Abdomen flattened, and broad behind. P. 142. Episinus

333

Superfamily Argiopoidea

BB. Abdomen globose. P. 357. Latrodectus

AA. Lateral eyes of each side contiguous or nearly so.

B. Posterior median eyes fully three times the diameter
of one of them apart. P. 340. Spintharus

BB. Posterior median eyes rarely more than twice the diam-
eter of one of them apart.
C. Anterior median eyes larger than the posterior median
eyes, and much wider apart.
D. Abdomen pointed behind. P. 342. Euryopis

DD. Abdomen more globose, broadly rounded behind.
P. 356. Dipcena

CC. Anterior median eyes rarely larger than the posterior
median eyes, when they are larger they are not wider
apart than the posterior median eyes.
D. Cephalothorax with a transverse furrow in the mid-
dle; abdomen usually prolonged either above or
behind the spinnerets.
E. Abdomen very long and slender, vermiform.

P. 336. Ariamnes

EE. Abdomen much shorter, p. 338. Argyrodes

DD. Cephalothorax without transverse furrow; abdomen
not greatly prolonged.
E. Sternum pointed or rounded behind; the hind
coxae either contiguous or more or less widely
separated by the end of the sternum.
F. Anterior median eyes much larger than the
anterior lateral eyes. P. 360. Steatoda

FF. Anterior median eyes not much if any larger
than the anterior lateral eyes.
G. Lateral eyes of each side slightly but dis-
tinctly separate.
H.. Clvpeus not wider than the area occupied
by the eyes. P. 362. Lithyphantes
HH. Clypeus much wider than the area occupied
by the eyes. P. 362. Asagena

GG. Lateral eyes of each side contiguous.

II. Lobes of the stridulating organ of the
abdomen very long; a small spider
measuring less than one tenth inch in
length. P. 361. Coleosoma

334

Superfamily Argiopoidea

HH. Lobes of the stridulating organ of the
abdomen, when present, of moderate
length.
I. Abdomen dark brown with two white
spots across the middle. P. 362.

Asagena
II. Abdomen not marked as in Asagena.
J. Labium long and pointed, more than
half as long as the endites. P. 361.

Teutana
JJ. Labium transverse, not more than
half as long as the endites.
K. Endites nearly straight and parallel
or slightly convergent.
L. Larger species, males measuring at
least one sixth inch and femaies
one fourth inch in length.
M. Lower margin of the furrow of
the chelicerae conspicuously
toothed; abdomen moderately
high in front. P. 364.

Enoplognatha

MM. Lower margin of the furrow of

the chelicerae with a very small

tooth or with none; abdomen

very high in front. P. 344.

Theridion
LL. Smaller species.

M. Males only; tibia of palpus enor-
mously developed. P. 354.
Theridula
MM. Females, and those males in
which the tibia of the palpus
is not enormously developed.
P. 344. Theridion

KK. Endites curved and strongly con-
vergent at the tip.
L. Abdomen wider than long with a
hump on each side in the middle
of its length. P. 354. Theridula

335

Superfamily Argiopoidea

LL. Abdomen without a hump on each
side.
M. First pair of legs longer than
the fourth pair; legs usually
long. P. 344. Theridion
MM. Fourth pair of legs longer than
the first pair, all short. P. 365.
Pedanostethus
EE. Sternum broad and truncate behind. All small
spiders measuring one twelfth inch or less in
length.
F. Abdomen furnished with several prominent
humps. P. 356. Ulesanis

FF. Abdomen not furnished with humps.

G. Cephalothorax with numerous, small, cres-
cent-shaped elevations, each at one side
of a puncture. P. 359. Crustulina

GG. Cephalothorax without crescent-shaped ele-
vations.
H. Cuticle of abdomen soft, without horny
shields or sigilla. P. 367. Theonoe^
HH. Abdomen with a shield or with sigilla.

I. Median eyes subequal or the anterior
larger than the posterior. P. 366.

HlSTAGONIE^E

II. Anterior median eyes smaller than the
other eyes, usually much smaller. P. 367.

Pholcommate^

The three genera Bellinda, Chrysso, and Gaucelmus, each of

which is represented by a single species found in Florida, are not

included in the above table, or in the following account of the

family.

Genus ARIAMNES (Ar-i-am'nes)

The lateral eyes of each side are close together; the middle
eyes are widely separated, those of each side being near to the
lateral eyes, thus forming a group of four eyes on each side. The
cephalothorax has a deep transverse furrow near the middle, and
the abdomen is elongate.

These spiders are remarkable for the slender form and great

336

Superfamily Argiopoidea

length of the abdomen, which is extended in a worm-like prolon-
gation far beyond the spinnerets (Fig. 326). The following species
is the only representative of the genus known to occur in our
territory.

Ariamnes fictilius (A. fic-til'i-us). — This species is light yellow
and silvery white in colour, with three darker bands on the cepha-
lothorax and one on the middle of the abdomen. The legs are
very long and slender. The body varies from one fifth to one

Fig. 326. ARIAMNES FICTILIUS

third inch in length; the part behind the spinnerets greatly ex-
ceeds the remainder of the body in length. The species is dis-
tributed from New England to the Gulf of Mexico, but is rare.

Hentz, who first described the species, states that the spider
makes a web like that of Theridion, and remains motionless in
an inverted position; and that the projection of the abdomen is
capable of bending over nearly double. F. O. P. Cambridge
writing of the "worm-like appendage" of the abdomen of spiders
of this genus states: 'This, as 1 have myself observed in Brazil,
is wriggled to and fro, looking like a small caterpillar. But of
what service to the spider this accomplishment may be is not easy
to guess; for on the one hand it seems likely to attract the atten-
tion of grub-eating wasps and ants, though on the other it mav
attract, within striking distance, gnats and small flies who become
curious to ascertain what the wriggling phenomenon may por-
tend."

337

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus ARGYRODES (Ar-gy-ro'des)

In this genus as in the preceding there is a transverse furrow
extending across the middle of the cephalothorax. Here too the
abdomen is of strange form, but it is not worm-like as in Ariamnes.
In our more common species the abdomen is greatly elevated
above the spinnerets, being triangular when seen from the side,
and in several of our species it is furnished with tubercles.

These spiders spin but little silk. They are sometimes
found in small webs that are evidently their own; but more often

Fig. 327. ARGYRODES TRIGONUM

they are found in the webs of other and larger spiders, where
they nourish themselves with prey which on account of its small-
ness escapes their host.

This is a large genus, eighty species or more have been de-
scribed; of these thirteen are found in the United States. The
two following are about the most common ones.

Argyrodes irigonum (A. tri-go'num). — This is a small, yellow,
triangular species with a high, pointed abdomen. Large females
measure an eighth of an inch from the head to the spinnerets
and nearly as much from the spinnerets to the tip of the abdomen,
which is two-lobed (Fig. 327). In the female, that part of the
head bearing the eyes is slightly raised, and the eyes are far
removed from the front edge of the clypeus. The colour is light
yellow, sometimes with a metallic lustre. On the back of the
cephalothorax there are three light brown stripes, and sometimes

338

Superfamily Argiopoidea

there are dark spots at the sides of the abdomen and over the
spinnerets.

The male is smaller than the female, is darker coloured and
has a smaller and less angular abdomen. It can be easily rec-
ognized by the remarkable form of the head (Fig. 328), which

Fig. 328. ARGYRODES

TRIGONUM, HEAD OF

MALE (after Emerton)

Fig. 329. EGG-SAC OF
ARGYRODES TRIGONUM

V V .

■

ILL . 1 ./*▼

ilium

'■' ' ' 1 1

1 I

•

Fig. 330. ARGYRODES NEPHIL.E, FEMALE, SIDE VIEW

bears two projecting horns each tipped by a bunch of toothed
hairs; the median eyes are at the base of the hinder horn.

The web is like that made by Tberidion; it is built among
the branches of shrubs or in the outer part of the web of some
large spider, with which the Argyrodes lives as a commensal, feed-
ing on the smaller insects caught in the web but neglected by its
host. The form and colour of the spider is protective, causing

339

Superfamily Argiopoidea

it to appear like a little, triangular scale, shed by some bud of a
hemlock, and caught in the web.

The egg-sac is a beautiful vase-shaped object; and is sus-
pended by a thread in the web (Fig. 329). When first made it is
white, but later it changes to a brown colour. On several occa-
sions we have found two egg-sacs in a single independent web,
one of which was brown and the other white; indicating that the
spider had lived in this web a considerable time, and had made
a second egg-sac. The egg-sacs are made in mid-summer, and
the spiderlings emerge in late summer or early autumn.

Argyrodes nephilce (A. neph'i-ke). — This resident of the South
resembles the preceding species in size, and in having a triangular
abdomen (Fig. 330); but differs strikingly in appearance, owing
to the fact that a large part of the upper portion of the abdomen

is silver-white; so that it appears like
a drop of quicksilver. The cephalo-
thorax is dark brown or black, and
the lower side of the abdomen is
black; there is also a black stripe
on the middle line of the abdomen
above.

In the female the tip of the
abdomen is rounded, not split; and
the clypeus is nearly vertical.

The head of the male bears
two horns, as in the preceding species; but in this species the
two pairs of median eyes are borne by the hinder horn. (Fig. 33 1 .)
Like A. trigonum this spider sometimes leads an independent
existence and sometimes lives as a commensal in the webs of
larger spiders, and especially in the webs of large orb-weaving
species. The specific name was suggested by the fact that it
sometimes lives in the webs of Nephila. It is found in the
South and is distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Genus SPINTHARUS (Spin-tha'rus)

This genus can be distinguished from all other comb-footed
spiders that occur in our fauna by the arrangement of the eyes.
The lateral eyes of each side are contiguous, as is the case with
most members of the family, but the posterior median eyes are

Fig. 331. ARGYRODES NEPHILA,
HEAD OF MALE

340

•Superfamily Argiopoidea

very widely separated, being three or four times the diameter of
one of them apart. This is a small genus; only a single represen-
tative of it has been found in this country.

Spintharus flavidus (S. flav'i-dus). — This remarkable spider
can be easily recognized by the accompanying figures. The
female (Fig. 332) measures from one- sixth to one fourth inch in
length. The cephalothorax and legs are pale yellow; the ab-
domen reddish brown. On each side of the abdomen there is a
white or yellow stripe. The area on the dorsal side of the ab-
domen, between these stripes, is
marked with black, red, and yellow;
the distribution of these colours

Fig. 332.
SPINTHARUS FLAVIDUS, FEMALE

Fig. 333-
SPINTHARUS FLA\ ll't S, M VLE

varies greatly in different individuals. This dorsal area is often
bordered by a black line or series of dots, inside of which there
is a red line, and inside of this two or three pairs of yellow oi
white spots.

The male measures about one eighth inch in length. It
has longer legs and a more slender abdomen than the female.
(Fig. 333.) It also varies greatly in markings.

The species is found from New England to Florida. It
is common on the lower surface of leaves of bushes. The spider

Superfamily Argiopoidea

rests near the edge of the leaf as shown in Fig. 334. At first
sight it appears to be resting on the leaf; but a careful examination
reveals the fact that each foot is supported by a thread. The
web, however, is so delicate that it is practically invisible.

Genus EPISINUS (Ep-i-si'nus)

This is one of two genera of the comb-footed spiders occurring
in our fauna in which the lateral eyes of each side are widely
separated (Fig. 335). This genus is distinguished from the other
(Latrodectus) in having the abdomen flattened and broad behind.
It contains but few species, of which only one has been described
from the United States.

Episinus truncatus (E. trun-ca'tus). — The female of this
species measures about one sixth inch in length; the male, one
tenth inch. It is easily distinguished by the form of the abdomen
(Fig. 336), which is narrow and bi-lobed at the base, and
gradually widened to near the posterior end; at the widest part
of the abdomen there is on each side a tubercle, behind which the
abdomen tapers rapidly to a point. This tapering portion is so
short that the abdomen has a truncate appearance, which doubtless
suggested the specific name.

This is a European species; the specimens before me are
from the Fox Collection, and were taken in the District of Colum-
bia. It has also been reported from Virginia. In habits and
structure it is closely allied to Spintbarus.

Genus EURYOPIS (Eu-ry-o'pis)

In this genus the anterior median eyes are much larger and
much wider apart than the posterior median eyes (Fig. 337);
and the abdomen is pointed behind.

These spiders are of peculiar form, resembling certain crab-
spiders more than they do other comb-footed spiders (Fig. 338).
They appear to spin but little, for their web is unknown. They
are found under stones, and in moss and lichens, running with
great rapidity; and they may be shaken from bushes, on which
they are probably stalking their prey.

Our species are of small or moderate size; and black with
white or silvery markings. They can be distinguished by the

342

Fig. 337- EYES OF EURYOPIS

Fig. 334. SPINTHARUS FLAVIDUS, ON LEAF

Fig. 335. EYES OK EPISINUS

Fig. 338. EURYOPIS FUNEBRIS

Fig. 336.
ABDOMI A UK EPIS1NUS

Fig. 339. FACE OF THF.kiniON

343

Superfamily Argiopoidea

markings of the abdomen. The more common ones are the
following:

Euryopis junebris (E. fu-ne'bris). — The hind part of the
abdomen is bordered with a silvery white stripe. The length of
the body of the female is about one eighth inch. This is our most
common and most widely distributed species, occurring over the
larger part of the United States.

Euryopis scriptipes (E. scrip'ti-pes).— - This is a larger species
than the preceding, the female being one fifth inch in length and
the male one sixth inch. Like that it has a silvery margin on the
abdomen; but this completely surrounds an irregular, triangular,
dark spot in the middle of the back. The specimens before me
are from Colorado, and have been given the above specific name
by Mr. Banks.

Euryopis argentea (E. ar-gen'te-a). — There are five or six
pairs of white spots along the middle of the abdomen and others
at the sides. Only immature individuals have been described.
The species is distributed from New England to Florida.

Euryopis quinquemaculata (E. quin-que-mac-u-la'ta). — There
are five spots on the abdomen above, a pair near the base, a pair
near the middle, and a single one at the tip just above the spin-
nerets. The length of the body is a little less than one eighth
inch. The species has been found at and near Washington, D. C.

Genus THER1DION (The-rid'i-on)

The lateral eyes of each side are contiguous (Fig. 339). The
sternum is longer than wide, except in some small aberrant species,
and ends in an obtuse, generally narrow point between the hind
coxae, which, as a rule, are but little separated, but there are many
exceptions to this. The endites are more than twice as long
as the labium, nearly parallel, being but slightly convergent at the
tip. The lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is furnished
with a very small tooth or with none. Stridulating organs are
absent.

This is the largest of all genera of spiders. Simon states
that nearly 320 species have been described; and forty are known
to occur in North America; this is more than one third of our
representatives of the family Theridiidas. Among our species
is our most familiar house-spider, and several that are very com-

344

Superfamily Argiopoidea

mon in shrubs and trees. Only a few of the more common species
can be described here.

The Domestic-spider, Theridion tepid ariorum (T. tep-i-da-
ri-o'rum). — Of all the spiders that inhabit our dwellings this
is the most familiar, and consequently best merits the title of
the domestic-spider. Its tangle of threads can be found in almost
any neglected room, throughout the length and breadth of our
country; and the species is not limited to our country for it is
almost a cosmopolite.

This is an exceedingly variable species in colour and mark-
ings. The beginning student of spiders is apt to collect many

V\ii. .540. THERIDION
TEPIDARIORUM, DORSAL VIEW

Fig. 341. THERIDION
TEPIDARIORUM, CAUDAL ASPECT

specimens of it and to think that they represent several species.
It is well therefore to become familiar with it in its various guises
as soon as practicable.

The female when full-grown may measure more than one
fourth inch in length; but many adults are smaller; the male is
about one sixth inch in length. The female varies in colour from
dirty white with a few dark spots to almost black. Figure 321,
p. 330, is a side view of an individual in which the markings are
distinct; Fig. 340 is a dorsal view; and Fig. 341 represents the
caudal aspect of the same specimen. The most characteristic feat-
ure is the presence of several dark chevrons above the tip of the
abdomen (Fig. 341). The male differs in being smaller and in having

345

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the abdomen more slender. In the lighter individuals of both sexes
the markings are very indistinct. In cases of doubtful determina-
tions an examination of the external reproductive organs should
be made.

The palpus of the male is represented by Fig. 342; the em-
bolus is comparatively short, and is supported by a prominent
terminal apophysis; this is roughened on the outside by numerous,
crescent-like elevations.

The epigynum of the female (Fig. 343) has a single large
oval opening.

The web is an irregular net-work of threads built in a great
variety of situations, but usually beneath some object which

serves as a protecting roof, as in the
upper angles of rooms, in the upper
corners of window frames and of
doorways. When living in the

Fig. 342. THERIDION
TEPIDARIORUM, PALPUS OF MALE

Fig. 343-
EPIGYNUM OF THERIDION TEPIDARIORUM

open air it is most apt to make
its webs beneath overhanging cliffs.
Frequently in the webs of this
spider there is a more densely
woven portion forming a sort of
a tent beneath which the spider rests (Fig. 322, p. 331).
The egg-sacs are brownish and pear-shaped with a dense outer
coat. They are suspended in the web, and several of them are
made by one spider. Often a brood of spiderlings that has just
emerged from its egg-sac can be found.

Theridion fordum (T. for'dum).— This large species, which
resembles the domestic-spider in size and habits, is found
in the South. It is distributed from Florida to California.

346

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The abdomen is marked by irregular, narrow, yellow lines
(Fig. 344).

The spider makes a large irregular web, like that of the
domestic-spider. These webs occur both in houses and on bushes
in the field. In the field, there is usually a retreat in the centre
of the web, made of one or more dried leaves.

Theridion rupicola (T. ru-pic'o-la). — This species closely
resembles the well-marked individuals of Theridion tepidariorum,
but is much smaller, the females measuring from one tenth to
one eighth inch in length and the males about one twelfth inch.
It is easily distinguished from T. tepidariorum by the fact that
the abdomen as seen from above ends in a pointed hump, which
is really about midway between the base of the abdomen and the
spinnerets (Fig. 345).

It lives under stones and in the midst of rubbish. Emerton
states that its web often contains grains of sand which look as
if placed there by the spider. 1 found an individual in August
which had a loose web
built between two pieces
of timber, which were
about three inches apart.

/ i\od

dfe

Fig. 344. THERIDION FORDUM

Fig. 345. THERIDION RUPICOLA

In the centre of the web there was a retreat one half inch long
made of bits of wood, and in the form of an inverted cup. The
spider was in the open mouth of the retreat, and within the
retreat there was an egg-sac.

Theridion frondeum (T. fron'de-um). — One of the more
common of the species of Theridion found in the fields is this little
white and black spider, which frequently attracts attention on
account of its conspicuous colours (Fig. 346). It is exceedingly
variable in its markings, so that a dozen individuals may appear
to represent half as many species. The general colour is white

347

Superfamily Argiopoidea

with black markings, which may be very prominent or almost
entirely wanting; every gradation between these two extremes
occur (Fig. 347). The cephalothorax is yellowish white with a
median longitudinal black line or band; this black mark may be
very narrow or may cover the greater part of the cephalothorax;
this line is sometimes forked on the head; the cephalothorax
may have a narrow marginal line. The abdomen is often marked
with three snow-white or yellow longitudinal bands separated
by transparent spaces; in the transparent spaces between the
median and lateral white bands there may be black spots; some-
times these spaces are entirely
black; in another type the centre
of the basal part of the abdomen
is black.

The female measures from
one eighth to one sixth inch in
length; the male, one eighth inch.
The front legs are long; those
of the female from one third to
two fifths inch in length, while
those of the smaller male equal
those of the female in length.

On each chelicera of the
male there is a pointed projection
in front near the base. In the
female the epigynum has a single
opening, which is turned forward.
The female is frequently found
with her egg-sac in a partly folded leaf on bushes. The egg-sac
is snowy white in colour and loose in texture. Sometimes a loose
sheet of silk is spun across the space between the two parts of the
folded leaf so as to keep the leaf folded and make a retreat for the
spider. The spider stays with her egg-sac till the young emerge.
We found the egg-sacs in July, and spiders with young during
the latter part of August.

Tberidion globosum (T. glo-bo'sum). — The male of this
species measures only six hundredths of an inch in length,
the female eight. The abdomen is very high, suggesting the
specific name. The cephalothorax is orange-brown, with the
eye-space black. The hind part of the abdomen is white, with a

348

Fig. 346. THERIDION FRONDEUM

Superfamily Argiopo.J:^

large black spot in the middle; the front upper part is yellowish
gray.

Tberidion unimaculatum (T. u-ni-mac-u-la'tum). — This also
is a small species, measuring about one twelfth inch in length.
It can usually be recognized by its white abdomen with a black
spot in the centre of the back, and a black ring around the base
of the spinnerets; sometimes the black spot is wanting, and the
ring about the spinnerets is incomplete. The cephalothorax is
orange with a black spot around the eyes; this extends back in a
point as far as the dorsal groove.

Tberidion kentuckyense (T. ken-tuc-ky-en'se). — The cephalo-
thorax is yellow or brownish. The abdomen is white, very thickly

Fig. 347. THERIDIOX FRONDEUM. VARIATION'S IN MARKINGS

flecked with black. On the middle line of the abdomen above
there is a white band, which begins a short distance back from the
pedicel; the basal part of this band consists of three quadrangular
spots separated by narrow transverse lines, and bounded on each
side by a solid black patch; behind these spots the band is indis-
tinctly separated from the flecked sides. Length of body of
female one eighth inch, of male, barely cne tenth inch. The
species was described from Kentucky; but it occurs as far north
as Ithaca, N. Y.

349

Superfamily /.;-~iopoidea

Theridion punctosparsum (T. punoto-spar'sum). — This
species measures one eighth inch in length. The cephalothorax
is dark yellow-brown, with a darker stripe in the middle and on
each side. The abdomen is dark gray with white spots. The
usual stripe is indicated by a large white spot in front and irreg-
ular lines of small white spots where the edge of the stripe is in
other species. The epigynum has a large oval opening outside
near the edge. (Fig. 348).

Emerton states that it is common in the neighbourhood of
Salem and Boston, under stones, in stone walls and similar shady
places, with a small web. It has also been found south to Florida
and west to Colorado.

Theridion lelotypum (T. ze-lot'y-piim). — The female measures
one sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax is orange with a
distinct dark stripe in the middle, and dark edges. There is a
light stripe along the middle of the abdomen above; from each side

of this stripe there extend several
lateral stripes separating a series of
black spots (Fig. 349). The middle
of the abdomen is bright red. On
the ventral side, there is a black spot
in front of the spinnerets, and the
epigynum is brown. The epigynum
has a single opening outside some
distance from the edge.
Emerton, who first described the species from Maine, states
that the webs were large, supported between the branches of
spruce trees by threads running upward to the branches above and
furnishing lodging for numerous specimens of Argyrodes. The
spider had usually a tent covered with dry spruce leaves, under
which it hung with cocoons and young.

Theridion studiosum (T. stu-di-o'sum). — This is an ex-
ceedingly common species in the South, and it extends northward
to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The cephalothorax is reddish
yellow, with a more or less distinct central band and lateral
margins brown. The abdomen is greenish brown or brownish
gray on the sides, with a dark median band above, bounded on
each side by a white wavy stripe (Fig. 350). On the ventral side
there is a dark longitudinal band, which extends the entire length
of the abdomen and behind surrounds the spinnerets, which are

Fig. 348. EPIGYNUM OF

THERIDION PUNCTOSPARSUM

(after Emerton)

350

Fig. 350.
TIIERIDION STUDIOSUM

Fig. 34Q-
THERIDIOX ZELOTYITM

351

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of the same colour. The male is nearly one eighth inch in length,
the female one sixth inch.

This spider is remarkable on account of its social habits,
comparatively few social spiders being known. My attention
was first attracted to it on the University Campus at Baton Rouge,
La., where on various shrubs and trees there were unsightly masses
of dead leaves tied together with silk, and extending from them
a sheet resembling the sheet made by Agelena, but without a
funnel. The mass of leaves was found to serve as a retreat; and
in each retreat, there were several individuals of this species,
evidently the common owners of the retreat and the sheet-web.

A closely allied species, Theridion eximius of South America,
lives in very large colonies, hundreds or even thousands of in-
dividuals uniting to form a common web. Simon states that they
sometimes cover an entire coffee tree; and F. O. P. Cambridge
says that he has seen their webs spun up to a height of fourteen
or fifteen feet amongst the foliage, being at the same time a yard
or more across.

This is the Anelosimus (Adelosimus) studiosum of Banks's
Catalogue.

Theridion dijjerens (T. dif'fe-rens). — We have three common
species of Theridion that agree in size, the female being about
one eighth inch in length, the male a little less,
and that resemble each other in having a distinct
dorsal band on the abdomen, which is brightly
coloured, often red or reddish in the middle and
white or yellow at the edges. These species
resemble each other so closely that they can
be distinguished with certainty only by an
examination of the palpus in the case of the
males and of the epigynum in the case of the
females. The specific differences were first
pointed out by Emerton who described the
three species.

In the male of Theridion dijjerens the

dorsal stripe is obscure and the whole abdomen

dark reddish brown. The bulb of the palpus

terminates in a projecting point which bears numerous teeth

(Fig. 351); the terminal apophysis is of the form shown

in the figure; and the embolus is of moderate length. The

Fig. 35 1-

THERIDION DIF-

FERENS, PALPUS

OF MALE

352

Superfamily Argiopoidea

cephalothorax isdarker in the middle, but there is no distinct stripe
and there are no distinct markings on the lower side of the body.

In the female the dorsal stripe of the abdomen is often very
brightly coloured — white at the edges and red in the middle,
in the male there is no distinct stripe on the cephalothorax and
no distinct spots on the lower side. The openings of the sper-
matheae are beneath the plate, so that they are not visible from
the outside (Fig. 352).

Emerton states that the web of this species is found on low
plants of all kinds, usually two or three feet from the ground.
There is sometimes a small tent, often hardly deep enough to

Fig. 352. THERIDION DIFFERENS,
EPIGYNUM

Fig. 353- THERII)H>\

MURARIUM, PALPUS

OF MALE

cover the spider, from which the web spreads two or three inches
according to the shape of the plant. The egg-sac is white, nearlv
as large as the spider, and is attached in the nest.

Theridion murarium (T. mu-ra'ri-um). — See the introduction
to the account of T. differens above. In T. murarium the cephalo-
thorax is pale with a dark line in the middle and one on each
side, the middle line sometimes divided into two near the eyes.
The sternum is pale with a black edge and a black stripe in
the middle.

The palpal organ of the male is of the form shown in Fig.
353. It differs from that of T. differens in lacking the toothed
projecting point of the bulb in the form of the terminal apophysis,
and in the presence of a sickle-shaped black spine on the inner
margin; the embolus is of moderate length.

353

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The epigynum of the female is represented in Fig. 354;
the two openings of the spermathecae are wide apart, and near
the thickened edge of the plate.

Theridion spirale (T. spi-ra'le). — See the introduction to
the account of T. differens above. The cephalothorax is orange-
brown above and below, with an indistinct dark stripe above as

Fig. 354-

THERIDION MURARIUM

EPIGYNUM

Fig. 356.
THERIDION SPIRALE,
EPIGYNUM

Fig. 355-
THERIDION SPIRALE, PALPUS OF MALE

wide as the eyes in front and narrowed behind. The middle stripe
of the abdomen is sometimes reddish, but oftener gray, with a
dark spot near the front end.

The male palpi are very large, and differ markedly from those
of the two preceding species by the great length of the embolus

(Fig. 355)-

The epigynum of the female is represented by Fig. 356;
the two openings of the spermathecae are about the diameter of
one of them apart.

Genus THERIDULA (The-rid'u-la)

The anterior row of eyes is procurved; the abdomen, in
the female at least, is wider than long with a hump on each side
in the middle of its length (Fig. 357); the tibia of the palpus of
the male is enormously developed, concave on the inner side, and
overlaps the tarsus half its length; while the bulb itself is very
simple (Fig. 358).

These are small spiders, measuring less than one eighth
inch in length. They are found on bushes by sweeping, but their

354

Superfamily Argiopoidea

web has not been described. Simon states that they carry their
egg-sacs attached to the spinnerets like Lycosa. Two species
occur in this country.

Theridula opuknta (T. op-u-len'ta). — The female of this
species (Fig. 357) is easily recognized by its portly abdomen,
which is high and wider than long; it is yellowish gray, with a

Fig. 357. ABDOMEX OF
THERIDULA OPULEXTA, FEMALE

Fig. 358. THERIDULA

OPULEXTA, PALPUS

OF MALE

greenish white spot in the middle and a black spot on a slight
elevation on each side; the cephalothorax is yellow with a wide
black stripe in the middle. The length of the body is one tenth
inch.

In the male the abdomen is not so greatly widened and the
markings are indistinct; but the cephalothorax bears a con-
spicuous, broad, dark, longitudinal band as wide as the eye-space.
The length of the body is one twelfth inch.

This is a very widely distributed species. It is the Theridion
sphccrula of Hentz.

Theridula quad ri punctata (T. quad-ri-punc-ta'ta). — This
species is found in the extreme South. The cephalothorax is
marked with a broad band as in the preceding species; the
abdomen is black with four oval, white or yellowish spots
above. It measures one tenth inch in length. I have seen only
the female.

355

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus ULESANIS (U-le-sa'nis)

These are very small spiders in which the dorsal cuticle
of the abdomen is firmly chitinized, and raised into a series of
humps. The abdomen is higher than long and extends forward
over the thorax to the head. Only one species has been found
in the United States.

Fig. 359. ULESANIS AMERICANA a, male b, female

Ulesanis americana (U. a-mer-i-ca'na). — This spider measures
only six hundredths of an inch in length and resembles a seed or
lump of dirt. It can be recognized by the accompanying copy
of a figure by Emerton, who described the species (Fig. 359).

Genus D1PCENA (Di-poe'na)

The members of this genus agree with Euryopis in having
the anterior median eyes larger and much wider apart than the
posterior median eyes; but they differ from that genus in having
a more globular abdomen, which is broadly rounded behind.

The spiders are found on bushes or on the low branches of
trees, especially Conifers, where they spin an irregular web, similar
to that of Theridion; some species are found in moss; and others
under stones.

Four species have been described from the eastern United
States. These can be distinguished by the following brief
characterizations. Two other species have been described from
the Pacific coast.

Dipoena lascivula (D. Ias-civ'u-la). — Abdomen light yellow.
Length of body of female one twelfth inch.

Dipoena buccalis (D. buc-ca'lis). — Abdomen light brown;

356

Superfamily Argiopoidca

opening of the epigynum nearly round; length of body of female
nearly one fifth inch.

Dipcena crassiventris (D. cras-si-ven'tris). — Abdomen dark
brownish gray, with a light bent line behind; opening of the
epigynum heart-shaped. Length of body of female about one
seventh inch.

Dipoena nigra (D. ni'gra). — Abdomen black. Length of
male six hundredths inch, female one tenth inch.

Genus LATRODECTUS (Lat-ro-dec'tus)

This is one of the two genera of the Theridiidne occurring
in our fauna in which the lateral eyes of each side are widely
separated. This genus is distinguished from the other (Episinus)
in having the abdomen globose. They are comparatively large
spiders, the females being the largest of the Theridiidae.

This genus, as has been well stated by F. P. Cambridge
"comprises those very interesting spiders which, under various
local names, have been notorious in all ages and in all regions
of the world where they occur on account of the reputed deadly
nature of their bite." It may be added that this belief is not
shared by students of spiders, and has probably been suggested
by the strongly contrasting colours of the more common species,
which make them appear venomous to the credulous observers
Two species occur in our fauna.

The Black Widow, Latrodechis mactans (L. mac'tans). — This
is a coal-black spider marked with red or yellow or both (Fig.
360). It varies greatly in its markings; the most constant mark
is one shaped like an hour-glass on the ventral aspect of the ab-
domen (Fig. 361). The female, when full grown, is often one
half inch in length, with a globose abdomen, marked with one or
more red spots over the spinnerets and along the middle of the
back; these spots, however, vary greatly in number and size and
may be wanting entirely. The male is much smaller than the
female, measuring about one fourth inch in length, and is even
more conspicuously marked, having in addition to the marks
of the female four pairs of stripes along the sides of the abdomen
(Fig. $62). It is a curious fact that immature females are often
marked like the males.

This species is very common and widely distributed in the

357

Superfamily Argiopoidea

South. It is found under stones and pieces of wood on the
ground, about stumps, in holes in the ground, and about out-
buildings. It spins an irregular web like that of Theridion but

Fig. 361.

LATRODECTUS MACTANS,

VENTER OF FEMALE

Fig. 360. LATRODECTUS MACTANS, FEMALE

Fig. 362.

LATRODECTUS

MACTANS, MALE

of much coarser silk; in fact its web can be recognized, in most
cases, at a glance by the coarseness of the thread.

Although it is essentially a Southern species, it occurs in
Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, and doubtless
other of the Northern states. I base the New Hampshire record
on the presence in the collection of Dr. W. H. Fox, now in the
museum of Cornell University, of fifteen immature females taken
at Mollis, Hillsborough Co., N. H., from a nest of Sphex; it also
occurs in California.

358

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The belief in the venomous nature of the bite of this species
is very widespread. An intelligent negro, who saw me collect-
ing the spider in Mississippi, told me that its bite is poisonous.
And Dr. C. Mart Merriam in his volume, The Dawn of the World,
Myths and Weird Tales told by the Mewan Indians of California,
(*io) states that the Northern Mevvuk say " Po'ko-moo the small
black spider with a red spot under his belly is poison. Sometimes
he scratches people with his long fingers, and the scratch makes
a bad sore." Doctor Merriam adds, "All the tribes know that
the spider is poisonous and some of them make use of the
poison."

In a letter received from Doctor Merriam he makes the follow-
ing statement: "Whenever I have questioned Indians about it
(this spider) in California they uniformly rank it with the rattle-
snake as poison. To poison their arrows they mash the spider
and rub the points of the arrows in it. Sometimes this is the only
poison used; at other times it is one of the several things used to
make the poison."

Much of the evidence for and against the venomous nature
of the bite of Latrodectus has been brought together by Riley and
Howard in Insect Life (Vol. I, p. 204-211, Jan. 1889); and in a
later number of the same volume (p. 280), Dr. E. R. Corson gives
an account of several cases in his practice in each of which the
patient, who suffered greatly, was supposed to have been bitten
by a spider. But in none of the cases was the spider seen except
in one; and in that case the specimen was lost, and consequently
was not determined.

Latrodectus geometricus (L. ge-o-met'ri-cus). — This is a
gray species in which the anterior median eyes are distinctly
larger than the anterior laterals. It has been found in California.

Genus CRUSTULINA (Crus-tu-li'na)

The base of the abdomen in these spiders is furnished with
a horny ring around the insertion of the pedicel. The males have
stridulating organs. This genus differs from our other genera
of the Theridiidae that have stridulating organs in having the
sternum truncate behind. In our common species the cephalo
thorax is conspicuously marked with numerous, small, black,
crescent-shaped elevations, each at one side of a puncture. Four

359

Superfamily Argiopoidea

species have been described from the United States, of which
the following is the most common:

Crustulina guttata (C. gut-ta'ta). — There are two varieties
of this species differing in the colouring of the abdomen; but these
varieties intergrade. In both the cephalothorax is dark brown; in
one the abdomen is bright yellow or orange without markings; in
the other the abdomen is brown and marked on the dorsal aspect
with a median band on the basal part, a curved line around the an-
terior part, and four spaces about the four muscle impressions of
a paler colour; and with several silvery white spots, usually two on
each side and one or two in the middle line. The body is about
one twelfth inch in length. This spider is common under stones
at all seasons.

Genus STEATODA (Ste-a-to'da)

This is one of several genera of comb-footed spiders in which
the sternum is pointed behind; it can be distinguished from the
others that occur in our fauna by the fact that the anterior median
eyes are much larger than the anterior lateral eyes. It is repre-
sented in the United States
by the following common,
and widely distributed spe-
cies: two others are found
in the Far West, and one in
Canada.

Steatoda boreal is (S.
bor-e-a'lis). — This is a
dark reddish brown spider
measuring when full grown
about one fifth inch in
length. The cephalothorax
is orange-brown, the ab-
domen, chocolate - brown.
Usually there is a light
longitudinal band in the
middle of the basal half of
the abdomen above, which
joins a semicircular band on the margin of the front half of the
abdomen (Fig. 363). Sometimes these light markings are wanting.
The male has stridulating organs.

360

Fig. 363. STEATODA BOREALIS

Superfamily Argiopoidea

This spider makes an irregular, more or less sheet-like web.
supported by threads extending in all directions. It is found
in buildings or in protected places.

Genus TEUTANA (Teu-ta'na)

The posterior median eyes are fully as large as the anterior
median eyes; and the labium is long and pointed, more than half
as long as the endites (Fig. 364). The male has well-developed
stridulating organs. Only one
species occurs in the United
States.

Teutana triangulosa. (T.
tri-an-gu-lo'sa). — The cephalo-
thorax is orange-brown; the legs

Fig. 364. TEUTANA TRIANGULOSA
LABIUM AND ENDITES

Fig. 36s. TEUTANA
TRIANGULOSA, FEMALE

are light yellow, and very long; the abdomen brown, ornamented
with three series of yellow spots, one central and one on each
side (Fig. 365). The length of the body of the female is one
fifth to one fourth inch; of the male, one eighth inch.

I have found this spider common in the basements of build-
ings, where usually its web is built in the lower angle of a window
in this respect contrasting strongly with the web of Tberidion
tepidariorum, which is usually built in an upper angle. The
principal part of the web is an imperfect sheet; a very common
feature of it is a number of vertical guy-lines extending down from
the sheet. The egg-sacs are made of white silk.loosely woven, with-
out a dense covering. The eggs are plainly visible through the walls
of the sac.

Genus COLEOSOMA (Co-le-o-so'ma)

The males of this genus differ from all others of the family
in the great development of the bitid plate which forms the ab-

361

Superfamily Argiopoidea

dominal part of the stridulating
organ (Fig. 366). No female has
been described.

Coleosoma fioridana (C. flor-i-
Fig. 366. outline of body da'na).— This is the only repre-

OF COLEOSOMA (after Keyserling) . , . r i

sentative 01 the genus yet found
in the United States. It is a small species, the male measur-
ing less than one tenth inch in length. It has been taken in
Florida.

Genus LITHYPHANTES (Lith-y-phan'tes)

The slight but distinct separation from each other of the
lateral eyes of each side distinguishes this genus from the
closely allied genera, except perhaps Asagena, in which there is
a slight but less distinct separation of these eyes. Lithyphantes
differs from Asagena in that the point of the sternum extends
about halfway between the posterior coxae, and in the narrower
clypeus. The males possess stridulating organs. Five species
occur in our fauna; they live under stones; the two following
are the most common.

Lithyphantes corollatus (L. cor-ol-la'tus). — The cephalo-
thorax is dark brown; in the more common forms the abdomen is
yellowish above with four or five, more or less connected, trans-
verse, brown bands (Fig. 367), and dark below with three narrow,
yellow lines, which are connected behind ; but the species is ex-
ceedingly variable. The length of the female varies from one
fifth to one fourth inch. This species is very widely distributed
in the North.

Lithyphantes fulvus (L. ful'vus). — The cephalothorax and
legs are reddish; the abdomen is brownish yellow, with two white
spots on each side, a median band or a series of white spots above
the spinnerets, and a spot on the ventral aspect of the abdomen
of the same colour (Fig. 368). The length of female varies from
one fifth to one fourth inch. This is a Southern species which

occurs from Florida to Texas and northward.

Genus ASAGENA (As-a-ge'na)

The lateral eyes of each side are slightly separated, but to
so slight a degree that they often appear contiguous; hence this

362

Fig. 367.
LITHYPHANTES COROLLATUS

Fig. 368. LITHYPHANTES FULVUS

Fig. 369. ASAGEX \
AMERICANA, M VLE

Fig. 370. ENOPLOGN VTHA
MARMORATA, MALL

363

Superfamily Argiopoidea

genus is placed in two divisions of the table on page 333. This
is a widely distributed genus; but it includes only a few species,
of which only one has been found in the United States. The
males possess stridulating organs. (Fig. 325, p. 333.)

Asagena americana (A. a-mer-i-ca'na). — The cephalothorax
is dark reddish brown; the legs, yellowish brown. In the male
the legs bear two rows of teeth under each femur. The abdomen
is dark brown with two white spots across the middle (Fig. 369);
these white spots are sometimes indistinct. The length of the
body is about one sixth inch. This spider is usually found under
stones.

Genus ENOPLOGNATHA (En-o-plog'na-tha)

The lateral eyes of each side are contiguous; the lower margin
of the furrow of the chelicerae is toothed, and in the males the
chelicerae are furnished with long teeth. The males possess

stridulating organs. This is a very large
and widely distributed genus of which
three species occur in the United States.
Enoplognatha marmorata (E. mar-
mo-ra'ta). — The cephalothorax and
legs are yellowish brown; the legs are
covered with fine hair. The abdomen
is whitish, marked with dark spots.'and
lines; there is usually an oblong dark
spot covering the greater part of the
dorsal aspect, the middle of which is
lighter with a central dark stripe (Fig.
370). "In some individuals the dark markings are broken up
into four pairs of black spots partly connected with a middle line "
(Fig. 371). " It lives under stones and leaves at all seasons and,
occasionally on bushes" (Emerton). The length of the body is
about one fourth inch. It occurs over a large part of the United
States.

Enoplognatha tecta is a closely allied species described from
Colorado. The abdomen is brown streaked with black on the
sides, with a median dark stripe above, and with two little round
white flecks on the side below.

Enoplognatha rugosa (E. ru-go'sa). — This species was re-
cently discovered by Emerton in New Hampshire. It is about

364

Fig. 371. ENOPLOGNATHA
MARMORATA (after Emerton)

Cuperfamily Argiopoidea

half as large as E. marmorata, measuring a little more than one
eighth inch in length. The colour is pale and less yellow than
in E. marmorata; the abdomen has an indistinct pattern con-
sisting of a broken middle line and, on each side of this, a row of
spots.

Genus PEDANOSTETHUS (Ped-a-nos-te'thus)

The fourth pair of legs are a little longer than the first pair,
and all the legs are comparatively short and robust; the chelic-
erae are robust, being thicker than the femora of the first pair
of legs; the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerse is toothed;
and the sternum does not extend between the posterior coxae.

Five species have been found within the limits of the United
States; of which the following is the most common.

Fig. 372. EPIGYNUM

OF PEDANOSTETHUS

RIPARIUS (after

Emerton)

Fig. 373-
PALPUS OF MALE OF
PEDANOSTETHUS
RIPARIUS (after Emerton)

Pedanostetbus riparius (P. ri-pa'ri-us).— - The length of the
body is about one sixth inch. The cephalothorax and abdomen
are about equal in length. The cephalothorax is smooth and
shining and darkened a little toward the head. The abdomen
is gray, generally lighter than the cephalothorax. and covered
with dark gray hairs. The guide of the epigvnum is pear-shaped
in some individuals (Fig. 372, a), oblong in others (Fig. 372. b).

365

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The cymbium of the palpus of the male is narrow (Fig. 373) ;
near the tip it has a notch on the upper side, and two stiff hairs
(Emerton).

This species was first described by Keyserling from Lake
Superior; but Emerton states that it is one of the most common
spiders under leaves all over New England.

Supergenus HISTAGONIE/E (His-ta-go-ni'e-se)

There are several genera of small theridiids that agree in

having the sternum broadly trun-
cate behind, between the widely
separated coxae (Fig. 374) and in
having the tarsal claws unarmed;
These genera have been grouped by
Simon into three supergenera; repre-
sentatives of each of which occur
in the United States.

These minute spiders have not
been thoroughly studied in this
country; and it is probable that
more careful collecting will bring
to light many undescribed forms.
It does not seem worth while, therefore, to attempt a complete
generic synopsis.

In the Histagonieae the cuticle of the abdomen contains horny
shields and the median eyes are subequal or the anterior are
larger than the posterior. The cephalothorax is oval, short, but
little convex, and hardly elevated in front; it is strongly narrowed
in front. The following genus includes our best known species.

Fig. 374. STERNUM OF HISTAGONIA

Genus HISTAGONIA (His-ta-go'ni-a)

The abdomen is oval, moderately convex, and covers only
the posterior part of the cephalothorax; there is a dorsal shield
in both sexes, and one on the epigastrium; there is also in the
male a shield on the venter in front of the spinnerets. In the
male there is a horn extending forward in front of the eyes and
having on its tip a bunch of hairs with flat, fan-shaped ends.

Histagonia rostrata (H. ros-tra'ta). — The cephalothorax is

366

Superfarr.ily Argiopoidea

very dark brown; the abdomen reddish brown above and darker
on the thin skin at the sides. The length of the body is about
one twenty-fifth of an inch. This species was described by
Emerton from specimens found under leaves in Massachusetts.

Supergenus THEONOE/E (The-o-no'e-as)

This supergenus differs from both the preceding and the
following one in lacking hard spots in the cuticle of the abdomen
except sometimes in the epigastric region. The stridulating organs
are absent or rudimentary.

These spiders are all of minute size; many of them do not
exceed one twenty-fifth of an inch in length; they are ordinarily
found under stones, in dry places, more rarely on bushes.

Representatives of three genera have been described in this
country. These can be separated as follows:

A. Abdomen globose, cephalothorax short and high, narrow
in front.
B, The tibia of the first legs not as long as the cephalothorax;
cephalothorax broad.
C. Posterior median eyes nearer the lateral eyes than to
each other; median ocular area narrower in front
than behind. Theonoe

CC. Posterior median eyes nearer each other than to the
lateral eyes; median ocular area wider in front than
behind. Microdipo \ \

BB. The tibia of the first legs longer than the cephalothorax,
which is more elongate than in the preceding genera.

Mysmena

AA. Abdomen elongate; cephalothorax broad in front; legs

banded. Ceratinops

Supergenus PHOLCOMMATE/E (Phol-com-ma'te-ae)

In the typical members of this supergenus the anterior
median eyes are much smaller than the other eyes ( Eig. 575);
but in the only genus yet found in our fauna the difference is less
marked (Fig. $76). I he cephalothorax is short, broad, and high;
and the thoracic part slopes greatly. The presence of an ab-
dominal shield and of stridulating organs distinguishes these

367

Superfamily Argiopoidea

spiders from those of the preceding supergenus; while the small
anterior median eyes and the form of the cephalothorax separate
them from the Histogonieae.

The following are the species of our fauna that have been
placed in this supergenus.

Ancylorrbanis birsutum (An-cyl-or-rha'nis hir-su'tum). — The
abdomen is large and globular, covering the thorax above. In

<$T6b

<o cr>

O O

. Fig. 375- EYES

OF PHOLCOMMA Fig. 376. EYES

(After Simon) OF ANCYLORRHANIS

the male the entire dorsum of the abdomen is covered by a shield;
in the female there is a plate at the base of the abdomen above the
pedicel. In the male there is a series of stiff bristles on the under
side of the femur of the first pair of legs. The length of the body
is three fiftieths inch. This is the Phokomma birsutum of Emerton.
Idionella formosa (Id-i-o-nel'la for-mo'sa). — Only the female
of this species has been described. About one fourth of the
length of the abdomen projects forward above the cephalothorax
in front of the pedicel; this part of the abdomen, both above and
below, is encased in a horny shield, which bears numerous split
tubercles, and is of a bright orange-red colour. The four muscle-
impressions are of the same colour. The length of the body is
less than one twelfth inch.

Family LINYPHIIDiE (Lin-y-phi'i-dae)

The Shcct-web Weavers

This family includes a large number of common species; but
most of them are of such small size and lead such secluded lives
that they rarely attract attention. A few of the species, how-
ever, are of larger size and build more or less conspicuous webs.
The webs made by these are of various forms; but as they usually
contain one or more sheets of silk, 1 propose the term sheet-web
weavers as the popular name of the family.

The sheet-web weavers belong to the series of three-clawed,
eight-eyed, sedentary spiders. In one genus, Antbrobia, which

368

Superramily Argiopoidea

inhabits caves, the eyes are wanting. The Linyphiidas differ
from the Theridiida?, with which they were formerly classed, in
lacking the comb on the tarsi of the fourth pair of legs, which
is characteristic of that family (Fig. 377); and they differ from

Fig. 377- TARSUS OF LEG OF LIXYPHIA

the Argiopida?, with
which they are classed by
some later writers, in
usually having more or
less distinct organs of

Fig. 378- CHELICERA OF

LEPHTHYPHANTESNEBULOSUS,

SHOWING THE FILE

- emb.

cym.

Fig. 37Q- PALPUS OF
LINVPHIA PHRYGIANA

PC paracymbium

stridulation on the external side of the basal segment of the
chelicerae (Fig. 378), a nd from nearly all argiopids in having
dissimilar eyes and in lacking the lateral condyle of the chelicerae.
The palpi of the males of the Linyphiidae differ from those
of the argiopids in that the paracymbium is closely applied to the
bulb, except during the turgesence of the haematodocha. The
cuticle of the paracymbium is hard and smooth, but its margin
is often furnished with hairs or spines, usually in a single series.

3O9

Superfamily Argiopoidea

In form the paracymbium is more or less crescent-shaped or horse-
shoe-shaped (Fig. 379, p. c; and Fig. 386, p. c).

The most striking difference, however, between these spiders
and the Argiopidae is in web-building habits, the type of web
known as the orb-web being characteristic of the Argiopidae.
while the members of the Linyphiidae, as already stated, build
sheet-webs. Several of these are figured in the following
pages.

The family Linyphiidas is represented in North America by
two subfamilies, the Erigoninas and the Linyphiinae. Each of
these contain many genera and species. It is not easy to distin-
guish these subfamilies; the most available characters for sepa-
rating them are given below in tabular form.

TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES OF THE LINYPHIID,£

Males

A. Tibia of pedipalps furnished at its distal end, either above
or on its external angle, with an apophysis; the para-
cymbium of the tarsus of the pedipalp usually small,
P. 370. Erigonin^e

AA. Tibia of pedipalps dilated at the distal end but without a
true apophysis; the paracymbium of the tarsus of the
pedipalp well-developed and its border often furnished with
a series of spines or granulations, P. 374. Linyphiin^

Females

A. Pedipalps without tarsal claws; epigynum comparatively
simple, without a projecting ovipositor. P. 370.Erigonin^
AA. Pedipalps with tarsal claws except in the cave inhabiting
genera (Anthyobia, Phanetta, and Troglohyphantes); epigy-
num either comparatively simple or with a prominent
appendage, the ovipositor. P. 374. Linyphiin/E

Subfamily ERIGONINiE (E-rig-o-ni'nae)

The Erigonids (E-rig'o-nids)

The erigonids are all very small spiders; for this reason,
they are seldom observed except by the more careful collector^

370

Superfamily Argiopoidea

They are usually found on or near the ground, where some of
them build sheet-webs; these are so delicate as to be invisible
except when covered with dew.

Many species are found among dead leaves, in grass, and in
moss. The best way to collect them is by putting the material
in the midst of which they live into a coarse sieve and shaking
it over a sheet of cloth or paper.

In the autumn many of the erigonids. become aeronautic
spiders, migrating by means of silken threads, which buoy them
up in the air and transport them long distances.

The males of the Erigoninas are distinguished from those of
the Linyphiinae by the presence of an apophysis on the tibia of
the pedipalps. This apophysis is situated at the distal end of
the tibia, either above or on its external angle, and varies greatly
in form; it either projects or lies on the base of the tarsus.

In the female, the palpi are without tarsal claws and the
epigynum is usually very simple, consisting of a small plate
without a projecting ovipositor.

The subfamily is a very large one. Crosby ('05) enumerates
141 species representing 31 genera that have been described from
North America; and doubtless there are very many undescribed
species in our fauna. It is impossible in the present state of our
knowledge to give a key for separating the genera; although a
beginning has been made by Mr. Banks who has published ('05)
a table for separating the males. We must content ourselves,
therefore, with references to a few of the more common species.
The names used here are those used by
Crosby in his Catalogue.

Ceraticelus fissiceps (Cer-a-tic'e-lus
fis'si-ceps). — These small spiders meas-
ure only one sixteenth inch in length;
their colour is light orange. A shield Fig. 5go. cephalothorax
overs the greater part of the dorsal of ceraticelus fissiceps
aspect of the abdomen; this is darker than the remainder of the
abdomen. The head is black or dusky about the eyes; and has
a transverse furrow back of the anterior median eyes; this furrow
is shallow in the female, but very deep in the male (Fig. 380).

This is a very common species; it is found on low bushes in
the summer, and can be obtained by sifting leaves in the winter.

Ccratnclus Icetabilis (C. lae-tab'i-lis). — This resembles the

371

Fig. 381. HEAD OF
DELORRHIPS UNICORNIS

Superfamily Argiopoidea

preceding species in size, being one sixteenth inch in length. It
differs in lacking the transverse furrow on the head, in being of
a darker colour, and in the female in usually lacking the shield
on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen. The cephalothorax is dark
brown, the legs orange. The dorsal aspect of the abdomen of
the male is covered with a dark orange-brown shield, in the
female this shield is usually reduced to four dots. In both sexes
there are shields on the ventral aspect, one in front of the spin-
nerets and one on each side at the base of the abdomen.

Delorrhips unicornis (De-lor'rhips
u-ni-cor'nis). — The cephalothorax and
legs are yellowish, the abdomen, olive-
gray. The male is easily recognized
by the presence of a long horn project-
ing from the middle of the clypeus
(Fig. 381); this horn is clothed with
stiff hairs at the tip. Another striking
feature is the great length of the apophy-
sis of the tibia of the male palpus, which is sickle-shaped and
longer than the body of the segment. The length of the female
is one sixteenth inch; of the male, a iittle less.

Prosopotheca directa (Pro-sop-o-the'ca di-rec'ta). — The cephalo-
thorax is brown, the abdomen, olive-
gray; the length of the body is one
twelfth inch. In the male there is a
horn projecting forward from the eye-
space and a smaller born below this
(Fig. 382).

Tracbelocamptns rostratus (Tra-chel-
o-camp'tus ros-tra'tus). — This is one
of a group of species in which .the males
have cavities in the head opening by
holes near the eyes. In the male of
this species there is a prominent hump on the head which bears
the posterior median eyes; and on each side at the base of this
hump and just behind the lateral eyes there is a hole (Fig. 383).
The length of the body is one twelfth inch.

Qzdotkorax montiferus (CE-do-tho'rax mon-tife-rus). — The
cephalothorax is dark yellowish brown; the abdomen, dark gray;
and the legs, orange-brown. On. the cephalothorax of the male

Fig. 382. HEAD OF
PROSOPOTHECA DIRECTA

372

Supcrfamily Argiopoidea

(Fig. 384) there is a hump half as large as the rest of the cephalo-
thorax; this hump contains large cavities, which open by holes
on either side, as large as the eyes. These holes are connected
by a deep crease, which extends around the front of the hump.
The anterior middle eyes are near together in the middle of the
head in front of the hump; the other eyes are in two groups at the

Fig. 383. CEPHALOTHORAX OF
TRACHELOCAMPTUS ROSTRATUS

Fig. 384. CEPHALOTHORAX OF
GEDOTHORAX MONT1FERUS

extreme corners of the head. In the female the back of the head
is considerably elevated, and the posterior middle eyes are farther
apart than usual. The length of the body is one
twelfth inch.

CEdothorax probatus (CE. pro-ba'tus). — This
is probably the most common member of
Erigoninae. It is a small species, measuring
one sixteenth inch or a little more in length;
and is not striking in appearance, both sexes
being of ordinary form. The cephalothorax is
yellowish brown; the legs, dull yellow; and the
abdomen gray with five or six pairs of obscure
yellowish markings. The colour varies, some
individuals being almost black and others very
pale.

Erigone aututnnalis (E-rig'o-ne au-tum-
na'lis). — In the palpi of the males of the genus
Erigone the patella is very long and is armed at
the tip with a large apophysis (Fig. 385); the chelicene are armed
with teeth on the front side; and there are small teeth on the
margin of the cephalothorax. Fourteen species have been cata-
logued from the United States. E. aututnnalis is a tiny spider,
measuring only one twentieth of an inch in length. It can be

Fig. 385. PALPI
in ERIGONE
ADTUMNALIS

373

Superfamily Argiopoidea

distinguished from the other species by its light colour and bright
yellow head.

Ceratinopsis interpres (Ce-rat-i-nop'sis in-ter'pres). — This
is a representative of a group of species which differ from all
other Erigoninae in having longer legs, which are also more delicate
toward the extremity; the metatarsi are not at all or barely
shorter than the tibiae; the sternum is broad and ends behind
between the broadly separated hind coxae in a truncated and
inflexed point. In C. interpres the colour is bright orange with a
little black around the eyes and around the spinnerets. The
length of the body is about one tenth inch.

con.

a.d.

b.d.

Subfamily LINYPHIINiE (Li-nyph-i-i'nae)

The Linyphiids (Li-nyph-'i-ids)

To this subfamily belong the larger and better known of
the species of the sheet-web weavers; some of them are exceed-
ingly common and build elabor-
ate webs, the type of which
varies greatly according to the
species.

There is no easily seen char-
acter by which the linyphiids
can be distinguished from the
erigonids. In the males of the
Linyphiinae the tibia of the pedi-
palps lacks a true apophysis at
its distal end, although it is some-
times enlarged at the tip or may
even bear a tooth; and the para-
cymbium is more developed than
in the preceding subfamily, it is
more or less sickle-shaped or
horseshoe-shaped. Figure 379
represents the bulb of the male
of Linyphia with the paracym-
bium (p. c.) slightly removed from
it; and Fig. 386 represents an expanded bulb. This is de-
scribed in detail in an earlier chapter (p. 1 12).

In the female the pedipalps are furnished with tarsal claws

Fifi. 3S6. PALPUS OF
LINYPHIA PHRYGIANA

374

Superfamily Argiopoidea

except in the three cave-inhabiting genera (Anihrobia, Pbanetta,
and Troglohyphantes). The epigynum is sometimes compara-
tively simple; but it is often furnished with prominent appendages,
the ovipositor. This ovipositor in the more highly specialized
forms (Fig. 387) is remarkable in that it is composed of two pro-
jections: one, the scape arising in the usual position in front of the

. •"A* ' K3 ■" .

. ■

Fig. 387. EPIGYNUM OF BATHYPHANTES NIGRINUS

opening of the oviduct; and the other, the parmula, arising
behind this opening. The second projection is concealed by the
first, except when the organ is viewed in profile. Fach of these
projections is grooved on the face next its fellow, the two grooves
forming a tube.

The following table of genera includes the greater part of
our known forms; but there are some of doubtful position that
have not been included.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE LINYPHIIN/€

A. Endites of the pedipalps as wide at the base as they are long.
Anterior metatarsi not longer than the tibiae. Legs un-
armed or very sparingly spined; tibia; always without
lateral spines.
B. Eyes wanting. P. 377. Anthrobia

BB. Eyes present.

C. Posterior eyes in a semicircular procurved line. I\ ^77.

Phanetta
CC. Posterior eyes in a straight or nearly straight line.

375

Superfamily Argiopoidea

D. Clypeus flat; posterior eyes moderately widely
separated; lateral eyes not/ at all or barely pro-
tuberant. P. 377. Tmeticus
DD. Clypeus more or less depressed below the eyes.
P. 378. Microneta
AA. Endites longer than their width at the base. Anterior meta-
tarsi not shorter than the tibiae. Legs armed with spines;
the tibiae almost always furnished with dorsal and lateral
spines.
B. Posterior median eyes much nearer to the posterior lateral
eyes than to each other; anterior eyes in a strongly
recurved line; median ocular area large. P. 399.

Tapinopa

BB. Posterior eyes nearly equidistant; anterior eyes in a

nearly straight line.

C. Chelicerae furnished in front with three or four spines.

P. 380 Drapetisca

CC. Chelicerae unarmed in front.

D. Posterior eyes near together. Sternum heart-
shaped, not at all longer than wide.
E. Median ocular area large, longer than wide, and
barely narrower in front than behind; all eyes
subequal. P. 383. Labulla

EE. Median ocular area not longer than wide, and
much narrower in front than behind; anterior
median eyes smaller than the others.
F. Metatarsi furnished with one or more spines.
P. 379. Lephthyphantes

FF. Metatarsi unarmed. P. 378. Bathyphantes
DD. Posterior eyes distant.

E. Eyes greatly reduced in size, cave-inhabiting
spiders. P. 382. Troglohyphantes

EE. Eyes normal.

F. Posterior median eyes plainly closer to the pos-
terior lateral eyes than to each other and very
much larger than the lateral eyes; femora with
but few or with no spines. P. 384. N eri en e
FF. Posterior median eyes not closer to the posterior
lateral eyes than to each other, and not much
larger than the other eyes. P. 385. Linyphia

3/6

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus ANTHROBIA (An-thro'bi-a)

The eyes are wanting and the pedipalps of the female have
no tarsal claws. Only a single species is known.

Anthrobia mammouthia (A. mam-mouth'i-a). — The adult
measures six hundredths of an inch in length. It is pale
brownish yellow; the abdomen is almost white, with brown hairs;
the ends of the pedipalps and the epigynum are reddish brown.

This spider was first described from the Mammoth Cave; but
it has since been found in other caves. Its eyeless condition is
an excellent illustration of the loss of an organ through disuse.
The species is doubtless descended from an eyed form, and has
lost its eyes as a result of living in the dark for many generations.

Genus PHANETTA (Pha-net'ta)

This genus like the preceding includes a single cave-inhabit-
ing species; but this is not blind. The eight eyes are present,
although the anterior median eyes are greatly reduced in size.
The pedipalps of the female have no tarsal claw; in this respect
this genus agrees with Anthrobia and Troglohyphantes and
differs from all other members of the Linyphiinae. It differs
from Troglohyphantes in having the posterior median eyes about
as close to the posterior lateral eyes as to each other, and in that
the anterior median eyes are barely the diameter of one of them
apart.

Phanetta subterranea (P. sub-ter-ra'ne-a). — The length of
the body is about one twentieth of an inch. The cephalothorax
and legs are yellowish brown, in some specimens reddish; the
abdomen is white with brown hairs.

This spider occurs in caves in Kentucky and probably in
caves elsewhere.

Genus TMET1CUS (Tmet'i-cus)

The clypeus is flat; the posterior eyes are moderately widely
separated; and the lateral eyes are not at all or but slightly
protuberant.

These are small spiders which agree with the following genus
in having nearly square endites, and in that the tibiae are without
lateral spines; but differ in that the clypeus is flat, the posterior,

377

Superfamily Argiopoidea

eyes are farther apart, the lateral eyes are not on tubercles, and
the legs are less slender.

They vary in colour from tawny to dark brown. Their webs
are tiny sheets of silk usually made under stones or at the base
of herbs, and rarely attract attention.

A single species, Tmeticus armatus, has been described from
our fauna; this is found in Canada.

Genus MICRON ETA
(Mi-cron'e-ta)

The members of this genus
are small spiders of slender form
with long and slender legs. They
agree with the preceding genus in
having nearly square endites (Fig.
388) and in that the tibiae are with-
out lateral spines; but differ in
that the clypeus is more or less
depressed below the eyes, the pos-
terior eyes are close together, the
lateral eyes are on slight tubercles,
and the legs are longer and more
slender.

A score of species are known
mjcroneta unimaculata f rom the United States ; but as most

of the species have been collected
by sifting dead leaves, comparatively little is known regarding
their habits. The species are mostly black or reddish or greenish
brown.

Genus BATHYPHANTES (Bath-y-phan'tes)

With this genus begins the series of genera of the Linyphiinaj
in which the legs are long and are furnished, at least on the tibiae,
with superior and lateral spines; and in which the metatarsi are
as long as or longer than the tibiae.

In Bathyphantes the sternum is heart-shaped, the median
ocular area is not longer than wide, and the metatarsi are un-
armed.

These are small spiders; they are found under stones or leaves,
and at the base of plants, where they spin a very delicate sheet.

378

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Nearly thirty species have been found in the United States; of
these the following are the more common.

Bathyphantes concolor (B. con'co-Iour). — The length of the
body is about one twelfth inch in both sexes. The cephalothorax
is yellowish brown; the legs, yellow. The abdomen is gray with-
out any markings. The ovipositor (Fig. 389) is long and slender;
it reaches nearly or quite to the middle of the abdomen. The
ovipositor consists of two pieces; the second piece, the parmula,
is much shorter than the first, the scape, and is concealed by it
except when viewed in pro-
file. The cymbium of the
male palpus is long and
tapering.

This is a common
species throughout the
North. We have taken
adults of both sexes in
September; they pass the
winter under leaves.

Bathyphantes nigrinus
(B. ni-gri'nus). — This is a
little larger than the pre-
ceding species, measuring
one tenth inch in length.
The cephalothorax and
legs are light yellowish
brown; and the abdomen is
dark gray or black with
five or six transverse light

bands. The ovipositor is long and slender, and differs from
that of the preceding species in that the second piece extends as
far back as the first (Fig. 387). The cymbium of the male palpus
is short and truncated, and the embolus is twisted in a circle on
the end of the bulb.

Fig. 389.

EPIGYNUM OF BATHYPHANTES CONCOLOR

a, lateral view b, ventral view

Genus LEPHTHYPHANTES (Leph-thy-phan'tes)

This genus differs from Bathyphantes in having the spines
of the legs longer and more numerous; the metatarsi, however,
usually bear only one spine, the femora of the fore legs one or two,

379

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and the femora of the hind legs none. The stridulating striae
on the outer face of the chelicerae are very conspicuous (Fig. 378).

Four species have been described from the United States of
which the two following are the most common.

Lephthypbantes nebulosus (L. neb-u-lo'sus). — Most of the
species of this genus are of small size; but this one is larger, meas-
uring one sixth inch in length. The colour is light brownish
yellow with gray or blackish markings. Figure 390 represents
the type of the markings of the abdomen; but there is a great
variation in the size of the spots. The ovipositor is folded back
under the atriolum, so as to be almost concealed except when
seen in profile (Fig. 391).

This species lives in damp and shady places and is often
found in cellars. It makes a large, flat, sheet-web beneath which
the spider hangs. It is a widely distributed species, occuring
in Europe and in a large part of this country.

Lephthypbantes minutus (L. mi-nu'tus). — This species is
smaller than the preceding, measuring only one eighth inch in
length, and differs in being dark gray with light markings (Fig.
392). The epigynum is of the same type, the ovipositor being
folded under the atriolum.

This species also lives in damp and shady places and is often
found in cellars.

Genus DRAPETISCA (Drap-e-tis'ca)

There is on the front surface of each chelicera three or four
spines in an oblique row (Fig. 393); and on the tibia and tarsus
of the pedipalps of the female some larger, divergent spines.
In the pedipalps of the male the cymbium is furnished with a
large, curved apophysis at the base in addition to the paracym-
bium. The epigynum of the female is furnished with a large
ovipositor.

Two species of this genus have been described D. socialis
of Europe and D. alteranda of the United States. Until recently
our species has been considered identical with that of Europe
and has been described under the name D. socialis.

Drapetisca alteranda (D. al-te-ran'da). — The cephalothorax
is white margined with black, the eyes are on black spots, there
is a black band in the middle of the thorax above, between this

380

Fig. 390. LEPHTHYPHANTES
NEBULOSUS

Fig. 392.
LEPHTHYPHANTES MINUTUS

sS^--^'~IL~^"--T'"">y5^"^' :-'^- ■■*-'• "•••'•'''■■''■'•v ''''■■"*

Fig. 3qi. EPIGYNUM OF
LEPHTHYPHANTES M.IUI.i ISI'S

Fig. 303. CHELICERA
OF DRAPETI SI \

a8l

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and the black margin there is a series of more or less distinct black
spots (Fig. 394, male; Fig. 395, female), the abdomen is white

mottled with black or
dark gray. The length
of the body is one eighth
inch.

In its habits this
species differs greatly
from the more typical
sheet-web weavers,
for so far as has been
observed, it makes no
web. It is found under
leaves on the ground
and on the trunks of
trees, where it pursues
its prey. Its colour and
markings are protective,
resembling that of bark
and lichens. Our adult

Fig. 394. drapetisca alteranda, male specimens were taken in

August and September.

Genus TROGLOHYPHANTES ,
(Trog-lo-hy-phan'tes)

These are cave-inhabiting
spiders, which, however, are not
blind. Their eyes are greatly
reduced in size, especially the an-
terior median eyes; these in some
specimens appear to be want
ing. In this genus, as in Antb
robia and Pbanetta, the pedipalps
of the female have no tarsal claws.
The presence of eyes distin-
guishes this genus from Antb-
robia; and it differs from Pbanetta
in the arrangement of the eyes, the posterior median eyes being
much closer together than to the posterior lateral eyes, and the

382

Fig. 395-
DRAPETISCA ALTERANDA. FEMALE

Superfamily Argiopoidea

anterior median eyes are much more than the diameter of one of
them apart. This is the genus Willibaldia of Keyserling.

Two species are known from this country and one from
Europe.

Troglobyphantes cavernicolus (T. cav-er-nic'o-lus). — The fe-
male is about one tenth inch in length; the male, less than
one twelfth. The cephalothorax, legs, and pedipalps are light
or brownish yellow; the abdomen, white or light gray. The upper
margin of the furrow of the chelicerae bears two quite large teeth,
the lower margin, one small one.

This spider has been found in caves in various parts of the
United States. I am indebted to Mr. Cyrus R. Crosby and to
Mr. Paul Hayhurst for specimens from a cave at Rocheport,
Mo. These were taken on little sheet-webs on the walls
and on the roof of a very damp and perfectly dark chamber
of the cave. Mr. Crosby collected also the egg-sacs. These
are white, and were attached to the lower side of little projections
of the wall of the cave.

Troglobyphantes incertus (T. in-cer'tus). — 1 have not seen
this species, but from the published descriptions it appears to
resemble the preceding very closely in size, colour, and in habits.
The upper margin of the furrow of the chelicerae bears seven teeth.

Genus LABULLA (La-bul'la)

The anterior eyes are large, equal in size, and in a slightly
recurved line; the median ocular area is longer than wide and
about as wide in front as behind. The bulb of the pedipalps of
the male is large and furnished with a long embolus, rolled in a
circle. Only a single species has been found in the United States;
this was described from the State of Washington.

Labulla altioculata (L. al-ti-oc-u-la'ta) .— -The body measures
about one third inch in length. The cephalothorax is light yellow;
the abdomen light gray, with a large triangular black spot at the
base and several transverse black bands between this and the tip
of the abdomen.

Simon states that the spiders of this genus are nocturnal;
that they live in woodlands, under large stones, between the roots
of stumps, and in similar places. The web is large, built near the
ground, and resembles that of Tegenaria.

383

Superfamily Argiopoidea

bein

i^p^.

Genus NERIENE (Ne-ri-e'ne)

The eyes of the posterior row are unequal in size, the median
g much larger than the lateral; the posterior median eyes are

slightly nearer to the posterior
lateral eyes than to each other; the
femora have but few or no spines.

The better known and more
common of the species that occur in
the United States are the following.

Neriene clathrata (N. cla-
thra'ta). The body is about
one eighth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is yellowish brown.
The abdomen of the female is
pale brown, thickly spotted with
white, and marked with brownish
black bars (Fig. 396). The male
^^f Aj f isdarker; in thisM'x the abdomen

is sometimes almost entirely black
with a white spot on each side.

The web is built among grass
near the ground;' it is a flat sheet,
and the spider hangs at one side
of it.

Fig. 396. NERIENE CLATHRATA

Fig. 397. NERIENE COCCINEA

Neriene coccinea (N. coc-cin'e-a). — When alive this spider
is crimson or red, with the last three segments of the pedipalps,
the area occupied by the eyes, and the tip of the tubercle of the
abdomen, black. In alcohol, the red colour is lost to a greater

384

Superfamily Argiopoidea

or less extent. A very distinctive feature is the presence of a more
or less pronounced tubercle at the end of the abdomen above the
spinnerets (Fig. 397).

This species has been separated from Neriene by Mr. Banks,
who has proposed the genus Linyphiella for its reception.

This is a widely distributed species, but it is apparently
more common in the South than in the North. I have not seen
its web, having taken the spider only by sweeping.

Neriene variabilis (N. var-i-ab'i-lis). — A striking characteris-
tic of this species is the form of the abdomen, which is com-
paratively high and ends in a more or less pronounced rounded

Fig. 398. NERIENE VARIABILIS

projection, which is situated a considerable distance above the
spinnerets (Fig. 398); there is, however, considerable variation
in the degree of prominence of this projection. The cephalothorax
is yellowish brown; the venter of the abdomen is dark reddish
brown; on each side of the abdomen there is a row of small silverv
spots, and above this a row of blackish spots; the dorsal aspect
of the abdomen is reddish or yellowish with a few small silvery
spots; there is a dark spot on the rounded tip of the abdomen,
and in front of this a double row of spots which vary greatly in
size. The length of the body is about one eighth inch; the speci-
mens measured were not quite mature.

Genus LINYPHIA (Li-nyph'i-a)

The genus Linyphia includes those sheet-web weavers that
are most apt to attract attention; the species, although of moder-
ate size, are large compared with the majority of the members of

385

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the family, and several of them build more or less conspicuous
webs.

The sternum is longer than wide; the posterior eyes are
widely separated; the median ocular area is not at all or barely
longer than wide; the posterior median eyes are not closer to
the posterior lateral eyes than to each other, and not much larger
than the other eyes. The endites of the pedipalps are longer than
their width at the base; squarely or obliquely truncate, the
lateral margin forming a more or less acute angle (Fig. 399).

This is a large genus; it is represented by more than a score
of species in the United States, in fact I have nearly twenty species

before me as I write; but only a
few of the more common ones can
be described here.

The Bowl and Doily Spider,
Liny phi a communis (L. com-mu'nis).
— The female of this species meas-
ures about one sixth inch in length,
usually a little less, but sometimes

more. At first sight it resembles

Fig. 399. PEDIPALP OF LINYPHIA
PHRYGIANA, FEMALE

the filmy dome spider; but it

differs in having the cephalothorax

of a uniform, light, brownish yellow,

and in that the dorsal band of

the abdomen extends its whole

length as seen from above; but on the hind end of the abdomen,

a short distance before the spinnerets, it is either reduced to

a narrow line or is entirely cut in two by the light colour.

The male is smaller than the female, measuring from one
tenth to a little more than one eighth of an inch in length. The
markings on the abdomen are much less distinct than in the female.
The central feature of the web of this spider (Fig. 400) is
a fingerbowl-like cup beneath which is stretched a nearly hori-
zontal sheet. 1, therefore, propose as a common name for the
species the term the bowl and doily spider.

The webs are built on low bushes, sometimes quite near the
ground, in other cases, three or four feet above the ground. In
the cavity of the bowl and extending several inches above it is
a maze of threads. The maze and the bowl are suspended by
strong foundation lines extending to neighbouring twigs. The

386

387

Superfamily Argiopoidea

lower sheet or doily is much more nearly horizontal than the bowl,
but is somewhat concave. It is not a discarded bowl, but is
composed of as fresh and delicate tissue as is the bowl. The spider
rests in an inverted position near the centre of the lower surface
of the bowl and is protected from attacks from below by the doily.
Insects that fly against the thread of which the maze is composed
are apt to fall to the bottom of the bowl, in which event they are
seized by the spider and pulled through the sheet as is done in the
case of the filmy dome spider.

On one occasion I carried a bush bearing the web of this
species three or four miles to our insectary. It was a very windy
day and the bowl of the web was blown entirely away; but the
spider clung to the upper surface of the lower sheet. The insectary
was reached at 5 p. m. At 10 p. m. of the same day, I found that the
spider had begun to spin a new bowl; and when examined on the
following morning, the web was completely restored.

I have found this species in only a few localities in New
York but in the South it is one of the most common of the sheet-
web weavers.

This is the Frontinella communis of some writers.

Linyphia insignis (L. in-sig'nis). — The specific name insignis
is not a very fortunate one for this species, as the distinguishing
marks that probably suggested it are frequently wanting. The
cephalothorax and mouth-parts are light orange-yellow. The
abdomen varies from dark gray to white and is either without
markings or with gray stripes across the back and on the sides
(Fig. 401); the stripes on the back are often angular. The
epigynum projects in a finger-like process, which reaches the
middle of the abdomen and has openings in the end (Fig. 402).
The tibia of the palpus of the male has a short pointed process
extending directly outward from the side. The length of the
body is one eighth inch.

1 have taken many mature specimens of both sexes in October
by sweeping, but failed to observe the web. Emerton states that
the spider lives in flat webs among low plants.

Linyphia lineata (L. lin-e-a'ta). — This species is easily dis-
tinguished from our other common species of Linyphia by the
three rows of black spots on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen
(Fig. 403); there are also irregular black spots on the sides of the
abdomen. The ground colour of the body is light yellowish gray;

388

Fig. 401. LINYPHIA 1NSIGNIS

Fig. 403. LINYPHIA LIXEATA

1 .102.
EPIGYNUM OF LINYPHIA INSIGNIS

Fig. 404.
LINYPHIA MARGINATA

389

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the cephalothorax is marked with three dark lines, and the legs
are prominently ringed with black. The male is nearly one fifth
inch in length; the female, about one fourth inch.

This species is found under stones and logs. I have not
observed its web; but Menge in his work on Prussian Spiders, for
this is a common European species, states that it makes a hori-
zontal net-like web in the grass or heath at the base of trees. And
I have taken a female with her egg-sac in thick grass; this was
in April.

The male represented by Fig. 403 was taken in August; but
was immature. It illustrates well the phenomenon of reproduc-
tion of lost parts. This individual had evidently lost, when
young, his left hind leg; and a new leg was half grown at the time
he was captured.

This is the Bolyphantes bucculenta of some authors; but it
is the Aranea lineaia of Linnaeus.

The Filmy Dome Spider, Linypbia marginata (L. mar-gi-
na'ta). — The marvellous delicacy and peculiar form of the web
of this spider leads me to suggest the above popular name
for it.

The adult spider of either sex measures about one sixth inch
in length. The cephalothorax is yellowish brown margined on
each side with a light stripe. The abdomen is yellowish white
heavily marked with dark bands and stripes (Fig. 404); in the
middle of the upper side there is a broad band which consists of
three parts united by narrower portions, and at the tip of the
abdomen there is a spot which is usually connected with this band
by a very narrow line. This dorsal band and apical spot usually
include two series of more or less distinct, lighter spots, frequently
two pairs of spots in each division of the band. On the sides of
the abdomen there are several dark stripes; those on the basal
half of the abdomen are longitudinal, while those on the hind half
are vertical. These lateral stripes are less distinct in the male.

The web of this spider is usually found on herbs or low bushes
in cool moist places, as in the borders of a woodland path, or on
shrubs fringing a shady stream. It may be very common and
yet not attract attention; for it is so delicate that it is often in-
visible except when the light falls upon it in the most favourable
manner. And even then its marvellous beauty and delicacy can
be appreciated only when seen against a dark background. It is

390

Fig. 405. WEB OF LINYPHIA MARGINAL \

*)i

Superfamily Argiopoidea

my practice, when showing students this web in the field, to hold
a piece of black velvet cloth behind the web. With such a back-
ground and with the sunlight falling upon the web, the observer
is sure to be filled with enthusiastic admiration.

The characteristic form of the web is well-shown in Fig. 405.
There is a maze of threads extending in all directions, and in
the centre of this maze a dome-like sheet from three to five inches
in diameter. When at rest, the spider hangs beneath the apex
of the dome. Here it waits till some insect whose flight is im-
peded by the maze of threads falls upon the dome; the insect
is then seized, pulled through the wall of the dome, and destroyed.
When the dome becomes badly injured it is pulled down and a
new one built. I n the figure there is shown a dense mass of threads
extending horizontally a short distance below the dome; this is
the remnant of an old dome.

This is a very common and widely distributed species, both
in this country and in Europe. The spiders mature in early
summer, and the young can be found in tiny webs in August and
September.

The Sierra Dome Spider, Linyphia litigiosa (L.li-tig-i-o'sa).—
In the Sierra Nevada Mountains there is found a species of Liny-
phia that makes a web similar to that of the filmy dome spider
of the East except that the dome is much larger and slightly
flatter (Fig. 406). Although this spider is widely distributed on
the Pacific Coast, and occurs in the Coast Range as well as in
the Sierras, I suggest the popular name, the Sierra dome spider,
on account of its great abundance in the Sierras. Excepting a
species of Agelena, this is the most abundant spider found over
a very extensive area in these mountains.

The adult spider measures one fourth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is yellow, with a narrow median black line, and near
each lateral margin there is a wider but less distinct dark band;
the sternum is black. The abdomen is silvery white above marked
with dark brown or black; there is a median dark band, from
which extend a variable number of more or less distinct oblique
lines; near the caudal end of the abdomen, this median band is
broader and encloses from one to three pairs of white spots; the
lateral aspect of the abdomen is dark marked with three or four
oblique white lines on the caudal half and a longitudinal white band
on the basal half; the venter is dark marked with white dots

392

Fig,

Photographed hv C. K. Gilbert)
406. WEB OF UNYPHIA LITIGIOSA

393

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and two more or less distinct white bands. Mature spiders were
collected during the first week in August.

The web is built among shrubs, between the branches of
small trees, in stumps, and against the sides of logs. The dome is
from one foot to two feet in horizontal diameter and from five to
eight inches in vertical diameter. It is of the same delicate
structure as that of the filmy dome spider, but is more conspicuous
on account of its much larger size. I saw thousands of these
domes along the trails in the sugar pine belt of Tuolomne County,
Cal. It seemed very appropriate that the architects of these

large domes should build
beneath these magnificent
trees. In the higher alti-
tudes i. e., above 7000 feet,
I did not find the spider.
The species was first
described by Keyserling
from specimens collected
in Washington State; and
Mr. R. W. Doane has sent
me specimens collected
near Stanford University.
It is evident, therefore,
that the species is widely
distributed on the Pacific
Coast.

The Hammock Spider,
Linyphia pbrygiana (L.
phryg-i-a'na). — This is
one of the most common species of Linyphia in the eastern
half of the United States; and is one that is easily recog-
nized by its characteristic markings. The cephalothorax is
light yellow, narrowly margined with black, and with a central
dark line on the thorax and two closely parallel lines on the head.
The abdomen is yellowish with a dark brown or reddish herring-
bone stripe in the middle (Fig. 407). The length of the body is
one fifth inch.

The web of this spider (Fig. 408) is a netted hammock-like
sheet, which is more often quadrangular in outline than other-
wise, but the shape depends on the nature of the support. It is

Fig. 407. LINYPHIA PHRYGIANA

394

Fig. 40S. WEB OI- I-IWI'IIIA PHRYGIANA

395

Fig. 409. WEB OF LINYPHIA PHRYGIANA
396

Superfamily Argiopoidea

found chiefly on herbaceous plants, although it occurs also on
shrubs, the lower branches of trees, and even on fences. 1 have
observed it most often on the borders of woodlands, in gorges,
and in valleys near streams. In almost every web that 1 have
examined there was a curled leaf that was used as a retreat by the

Fig. 4io- WEB OF LIWI'IIIA IM'SII.I.A

spider. The relation of this retreat to the web varied greatly,
the leaf being either at one end, on one side, or near the middle
of the web.

If, however, there is not a curled leaf available for a retreat,
the spider will build a tent of silk. This was done in the case
of the web represented in Fig. 409. Here the retreat is composed

397

Superfamily Argiopoidea

entirely of silk, and is furnished with a small opening at one side.
Just before taking the photograph for this picture I jarred the
web slightly, whereupon the spider rushed forth and assumed
the attitude shown in the picture.

This species continues active late in the autumn after most
of the orb-weavers have practically disappeared.

The Platform Spider, Linyphia pusilla (L. pu-sil'la). — The
term platform spider which I apply to this species was suggested
by the form of its web (Fig. 410).

Fig. 411. LINYPHIA PUSILLA

Fig. 412. LINYPHIA PUSILLA

The bod)' is about one sixth inch in length. The cephalo-
thorax is dark orange-brown, and the legs a lighter shade of the
same colour. The abdomen is dark brown, often almost black,
with several white spots, usually two across the front end and
several others on the sides (Fig. 411); these sometimes form a
complete white margin. In some individuals the upper part of
the abdomen is brown with a series of transverse dark bars (Fig.
412); in others it is almost entirely black. Every gradation be-
tween these two forms occurs.

In the male both the cephalothorax and the abdomen are
long and narrow; and the chelicerae are more than half as long as
the cephalothorax.

398

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The web (Fig. 410) is a horizontal platform, from three to
six inches across, built between blades of grass, and usuallv from
two to six inches from the ground. Above the sheet forming
the platform, there is a labyrinth of delicate threads.

The spider usually hangs below the centre of the platform,
but is sometimes found in the labyrinth above it. It is exceed-
ingly shy, dropping to the ground on the slightest disturbance.

1 have found the adults in April. These may have matured
the previous autumn.

Genus TAPINOPA (Tap-i-no'pa)

The posterior median eyes are much nearer to the posterior
lateral eyes than to each other; the anterior eyes are in a strongly

Fig. 413. TAPINOPA BILIXEATA

Fis- 41 J-

EPIGYNUM OF TAPINOPA UH.IXh \l \

a, ventral view b, lateral view

recurved line; the median ocular area is large; the anterior median
eyes are larger than the posterior median eyes.

This genus is represented in the United States by a single
described species; three or four species are known in Europe.

Tapinopa bilineata (T. bi-lin-e-a'ta). — The cephalothorax
is pale with a broad black stripe on each side; these stripes do
not extend to the lateral margins, but they cover the greater
part of the dorsal aspect. The abdomen is pale, grayish brown.

399

Superfamily Argiopoidea

blotched with white, and has two rows of four or five spots each
above, and a few chevrons at the tip (Fig. 413); the sides are
marked with some oblique stripes, and the venter is almost wholly
black. The epigynum of the female projects in a prominent
manner and has the ovipositor coiled back under the atriolum
(Fig. 414). The cymbium of the male palpus is longer than the
femur and is furnished on the dorsal side at the base with a long,
backward projecting apophysis. The length of the body is one
sixth inch.

Mr. Banks, to whom I am indebted for specimens of this
species and who first described it, states that it lives among grass
or leaves close to the ground. It was- first found on Long Island;
and it is common in the vicinity of Washington, D. C. It has
also been taken at Ithaca, N. Y.

Family ARGIOPID^;* (Ar-gi-opi'-dae)

The Orb-weavers

These spiders are most easily recognized by their web-building
habits; all of the species that make webs build what is known as
an orb-web, and this type of web is built by no member of any
other family except Uloborus of the family Uloboridae; and in this
case the nature of the spiral thread is very different from what it is
in the Argiopidae.

The orb-weavers are three-clawed, eight-eyed, sedentary
spiders. In nearly all of. t|re genera the eyes are similar; and
the lateral condyle of the chelicerae is usually present. The
tarsi are more or less clothed with hairs; but they lack the comb
characteristic of the Theridiidae, and the peculiar arrangement
of spines that distinguishes the Mimetidae.

The family Argiopidae includes seven subfamilies; the fol-
lowing table will aid in the separation of these:

TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES OF THE ARGIOPID^

A. Eyes dissimilar. P. 401. Theridiosomatin^

AA. Eyes similar.

This family has been designated the Epeiridse by mcf1 writers; but as it has been found that
the generic na-je Epsira is not tenable, the name of the family has been changed to Argiopidae by
later writers.

4OO

Superfamily Argiopoidea

B. Epigastric plates not marked by transverse furrows.
Lateral condyle of the chelicerae wanting or rudi-
mentary.
C. Epigastric furrow between the spiracles procurved.
p. 405. Tetragnathin^

CC. Epigastric furrow nearly straight, p. 415.

Meting
BB. Epigastric plates marked by transverse furrows. Lateral
condyle of the chelicerae distinct.
C. Spinnerets not tubulated (See CC below).

D. Labium longer than broad, p. 426. Nephilin/E
DD. Labium broader than long.

E. Posterior row of eyes strongly procurved; legs
relatively longer; metatarsi and tarsi together
longer than the patellae and tibiae, p. 433.

ArGIOPIN/€

EE. Posterior row of eyes barely, if at all, procurved;
legs relatively shorter; metatarsi and tarsi to-
gether rarely longer than the patellae and tibiae,
p. 443. Aranein^e

CC. Spinnerets elevated on a very large projection and
occupying a circular space limited by a thick flange
in the form of a tube or ring. p. 512.

Gasteracanthinve

Subfamily THERIDIOSOMATIN^ (The-rid-i-o-

som-a-ti'nae)

The Ray-spider Family

The best-known representative of this subfamily in our
fauna can be most easily recognized by the form of its web,
which is described below. These are small spiders in which the
eyes are dissimilar in colour; the lateral condyle of the chelicerae
is wanting; the tarsi of the fourth pair of legs are clothed beneath
with numerous serrated bristles, but not with a single series of
stout serrated spines as in the Theridiidae. The middle spin-
nerets are situated between the hind pair, the four forming a
straight transverse line; the fore spinnerets are longer than the
hind ones; the colulus is distinct.

Only one genus occurs in America north of .Mexico.

401

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus THERIDIOSOMA (The-rid-i-o-so'ma)

The abdomen is globular; the posterior median eyes are
slightly closer to each other than to the posterior laterals.

The following is our best-known species; a second species,
T. argentatum, occurs in the South.

The Ray-spider, Tberidiosoma radiosa (T. ra-di-o'sa). — The
length of the body of the female is one tenth inch; of the male,
one twelfth inch. The cephalothorax is cordate, truncate at
base, the head is much elevated. The abdomen is rounded, oval
and highly arched. The external reproductive organs are very
prominent; the epigynum of the female being large and vaulted;
and the bulb of the palpus of the male being very large. The
abdomen varies from straw-yellow to black, but all are marked
with many small silvery spots which give the spider a shining
appearance.

The web of this spider represents a unique type. As this is
the only species of this subfamily whose web has been observed,
we are unable to say whether its pecularities are distinctively
characteristic of the species or are shared by other members of the
subfamily.

The web was first described by Doctor McCook in 1883 and
no subsequent account of it has been published. But owing to
the common occurrence of the spider at Ithaca, N. Y., 1 have
had abundant opportunities for observing it.

The spider prefers damp situations. It is most often found
in the vicinity of streams or in damp forests. It often makes its
webs on the face of a cliff over water. Although I have seen
large numbers of the web, I have never found one in the field
sufficiently well lighted and with a suitable background to enable
me to photograph it. The accompanying figures are from pho-
tographs of webs made by spiders in confinement.

A remarkable feature of this web is that there is no hub
(Fig. 415). The radii converge upon a small number of lines
radiating from a point at or near the centre. These lines are
termed rays by Doctor McCook; and the entire web a ray-formed
web. There are usually four or five of these main divisions or
"rays"; there is a large free zone which occupies about one third
of the diameter of the web; there is no notched zone; and, in most
of the webs that 1 have observed, less than a dozen turns of the

402

Fig. 415. WEB OF THERIDIOSOMA RADIOSA

I'M

Superfamily Argiopoidea

viscid spiral. The diameter of the orb is from two and one half
to five inches. It is usually vertical or slightly inclined; in a few
cases it is horizontal.

The rays converge upon a trapline, which usually extends per-
pendicular to the plane of the orb; but a convenient point of

Fig. 416. WEB OF THERIDIOSOMA RADIOSA

attachment may lead the spider to stretch this line in another
direction. The spider rests upon the rays at the centre of the
web, with its dorsal aspect uppermost and its head away from the
orb, and, by pulling on the trapline with its fore feet, pulls the
orb into the shape of a cone or funnel (Fig. 416). It is in this
position that the spider waits for its prey. When an insect
becomes entangled in the web, the spider releases its hold on
the trapline allowing the web to spring back. This springing
of the web, as in the case of the triangle spider, increases the
probability of the insect becoming more firmly ensnared.

I have seen a ray-spider finish its web, the web being partly
made when the observations began. There was a spiral guy-line
as in the web of orb-weavers; but the spider cut out the whole of
the guy-line leaving no hub. In one case the spider fastened three
radii together so as to form a "ray," each radius at first extending
clear to the centre.

The egg-sac (Fig. 417) is light brown, pear-shaped, and about
one eighth inch in its transverse diameter. It is suspended by a
thread, which is usually forked. The pointed end of the egg-sac to
which this thread is attached is a separable cap, which is partly
pushed off when the spiderlings emerge, as shown in the figure.

404

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Although this spider usually selects a dark situation for its
web, the egg-sacs are made in exposed places. Some of them hang
from the face of a cliff; but the favourite position is suspended from
dead branches of hemlock and other brush. I have also found
many attached to living herbs. They are sometimes very abun-

Fig. 417- EGG-SAC OF THERIDIOSOMA RADIOSA

dant; on one occasion I counted twenty-four egg-sacs in one cubic
foot of space, among the roots of a tree on the side of a glen. The
presence of this remarkable spider in a locality can be most easily
determined by the presence of the egg-sacs. The spiderlings
emerge from the egg-sac in the latter part of summer.

Subfamily TETRAGNATHIN/E (Te-trag-na-thi'nae)
The Tetragnatbids (Te-trag'na-thids)

The most striking characteristic of this subfamily is the large
size of the cheliceras, especially in the males. I he endites are
also usually quite large. It was probably this fact that suggested
the name Telragnatha, four-jawed, for the typical genus. But it
would be unwise to speak of these spiders as the four-jawed spiders,
as that would suggest that they differed from other spiders in
the possession of an extra pair of jaws.

The members of this subfamily are distinguished from other

Superfamily Argiopoidea

argiopids by
reproductive
of the female
being merely
418) are more

the simplicity of the structure of their external
organs. The opening of the reproductive organs
is furnished with neither an atriolum nor a scape,
a transverse slit; and the palpi of the males (Fig.
simple than in the other divisions of the Argiopidae;

being of the intermediate type.

(See page 1 10 for description.)

emb.

-p. c.

cym.-—

Fig. 418. GENITAL BULB OF
PACHYGNATHA, EXTENDED

Fig. 419. VENTRAL ASPECT OF
TETRAGNATHA LABORIOSA

The Tetragnathinas agree with the Metinas in the absence of
transverse furrows on the epigastric plates; but can be distin-
guished from them by the fact that the epigastric furrow between
the spiracles is procurved (Fig. 419), by the absence of a lateral
condyle on the chelicerae, and by the fact that the furrow of the
chelicerae is armed with numerous teeth.

Four genera of the Tetragnathinae are represented in our
fauna; these can be separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE TETRAGNATHIN/E

Fndites more or less convergent and not dilated at the distal
end; lateral eyes on each side near together; tarsi with-
out accessory claws.

406

Superfamily Argiopoidea

B. Posterior spiracle situated nearly midway between the epi-
gastric furrow and the spinnerets. P.408. Glenognatha
BB. Posterior spiracle near the spinnerets. P. 407.

Pachygnatha
AA. Endites parallel, dilated at the distal end; lateral eyes on
each side usually distant; tarsi with accessory claws.
B Spinnerets at or near the end of the abdomen. P. 408.

Tetragnatha
BB. 'Pip of abdomen projecting beyond the spinnerets. P. 415.

Eucta

Genus PACHYGNATHA (Pa-chyg'na-tha)

The species of this genus are of moderate size, and in general
appearance resemble certain of the Theridiida} (Steatoda), the
abdomen being oval and rounded; but in details of structure they
are clearly allied to Tetragnatha. The cephalothorax is usually
yellow with an obscure border and median band; and the abdomen
is ornamented above with a re-
ticulated folium. The endites
are convergent and not dilated
at the distal end. (Fig. 420).

Fig. 420. MOUTH-PARTS OF
PACHYGNATHA TRISTRIATA, MALI.

Fig. 421. PACHYGNATHA
BREVIS, IMMATURE MALE

These spiders are found on the ground under stones, wood,
or leaves, and especially in damp places. 1 have also swept them
from aquatic plants over water in a lagoon. They are not known
to spin webs of any kind.

The genus is represented in this country by several widely
distributed species, of which the following is the most common.

40;

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Pachygnatha brevis (P. brev'is).— This is our largest species,
the body measuring nearly one fourth inch in length, and it is
of bright colours. Figure 421 represents an immature male. The
net-work of lines on the abdomen is dark brown. In living
specimens the folium is brick-red, with central and marginal dark
lines; the central line separates two rows of light yellow spots.
On each side of the abdomen there is a light yellow stripe bordered
with dark.

Genus GLENOGNATHA (Gle-nog'na-tha)

This genus is closely allied to the preceding; but it differs
in the position of the posterior spiracle, which is situated nearly
midway between the epigastric furrow and the spinnerets.

The following is the only described species from our fauna.

Glenognatha emertoni (G. em-er-to'ni). — The male measures
a little ,more than one fourth inch in length. It was taken in
Arizona. Nothing has been published regarding the habits of
the species.

Genus TETRAGNATHA (Te-trag'na-tha)

The abdomen is long and slender and bears the spinnerets
at or near its end. The endites are parallel and dilated at the
distal end (Fig. 419); the lateral eyes on each side are usually
distant. The chelicerae are without a lateral condyle.

These are orb-weaving spiders; they are common on plants
and other objects in the vicinity of water and some of them occur
on grass in drier places. They are striking in appearance on
account of their slender form, the great length of their legs, and
the large size of their chelicerae (Fig. 419). The chelicerae are
sometimes of enormous size, especially in males.

The webs (Fig. 422) are either inclined or horizontal. They
are of moderate or large size. I have seen horizontal ones, built
over a race of running water, that were two feet in diameter.
These had an open hub, a notched zone of .four or five turns, a
broad free space, and from thirty to forty viscid spirals.

In all webs that I have seen made by spiders of this genus the
hub was open; but in some there was no free space.

When at rest on a branch the spiders assume a very char-
acteristic attitude; the body is closely applied to the branch, the

408

Superfamily Argiopoidea

first and second pairs of legs are stretched directly forward, the
fourth pair, backward, and the shorter third legs embrace the
branch.

When resting on its web the spider stands over the centre
with its legs in a somewhat similar position.

The egg-sacs are attached to various objects and present a
very characteristic appearance due to their bearing projecting

Fig. 422. WEB OF TETRAGNATHA

tufts of silk, which, in some cases at least, contrast strongly in
colour with the body of the sac (Fig. 203, p. 212).

The following descriptions are of adult individuals; in im-
mature ones the teeth on the upper margin of the furrow of the
chelicerae are similar in shape and are regularly spaced, and the
claw of the chelicerae is very short and stout. In the adults the
teeth, especially those near the apex of the chelicerae vary in form.

409

Superfamily Argiopoidea

size, and spacing in the different species and are fairly constant,
slight variations from the formulae given in the specific descrip-
tions occur.

Seven species have been described from the United States;
one of these, T. banksi, is found in Florida; this species I have
not seen. The others are widely distributed; they can be sep-
arated by the following table.

TABLE OF THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF TETRAGNATHA

A. Lateral eyes of each side not so widely separated as the
anterior median and posterior median eyes.
B. Chelicerae of the male longer than the cephalothorax;
those of the female about one tenth shorter than the
cephalothorax. P. 411. T. elongata

BB. Chelicerae of the male shorter than the cephalothorax;
those of the female only a little more than half as long
as the cephalothorax. P. 411. T. extensa

AA. Lateral eyes of each side as far apart as are the anterior
median and posterior median eyes.
B. Lateral eyes of each side about the same distance apart
as are the anterior median and posterior median eyes.
P. 412. T. labor iosa

BB. Lateral eyes of each side farther apart than are the
anterior median and posterior median eyes. (The genus
Eugnatba of some writers.)
C. Males

D. Tibia of the palpus not longer than the patella;
chelicerae shorter than the cephalothorax. P. 414.

T. vermiformi s

DD. Tibia of the palpus twice as long as the patella.

E. Chelicerae shorter than the cephalothorax, with a

large tooth on the inner margin, and with the

outer tooth bifid at the tip. (Fig. 423, a).

P. 414.

T. straminea

EE. Chelicerae as long as the cephalothorax, all of

the teeth on the inner margin small, outer tooth

not bifid (Fig. 423, b). P. 415. T. pallidula

CC. Females.

410

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Endite of the pedipalp not reaching to the end of the
claw of the chelicera; chelicerae projecting almost

horizontally. P. 41 5.

J . pallidula

I)D. Endite of the pedipalp reaching to the end of the
claw of the chelicera; chelicerae projecting more verti-
cally.
E. Outer side of the chelicerae nearly straight. P. 414.

7 . vermiformis
EE. Outer side of the chelicerae concave. P. 414.

T. straminea
Tctragnatha elongata (T. el-
on-ga'ta). — The lateral eyes of
each side are not as far apart as
the anterior median and posterior
median eyes. The chelicerae of the
male are longer than the cephal-
othorax; those of the female are
about one tenth their length
shorter than the cephalothorax.
This is the largest of our
common species, the body of the
full-grown female being often
one half inch in length. In the
female (Fig. 424) the basal third
of the abdomen is usually swollen; the male (Fig. 425) is more
slender. It prefers damp situations; the web is often found
over running water, and frequently it is perfectly horizontal.
This is the Tetragnatha grallator of Hentz.

Wishing to obtain a photograph of a web of Tetragnatha, and
not finding one in the field with a suitable background. I took
some spiders of this species to our insectary, and set them free
on the edge of a large tank through which water was flowing.
Here they remained unconfined, making no effort to wander to
the dryer parts of the building. I placed a section of a balustrade
upon the top of this tank, and the spiders stretched their webs
between its pillars. Figure 422 represents one of these. Before
taking the photograph the balustrade was taken from its place
over the tank and set in a vertical position before a suitable back-
ground.

Tetragnatha externa (T. ex-ten'sa). — The lateral eyes of each

411

Fig. 423. CHELICERA OF TETRAGNATHA

a, T. slraminea b, T. pallidula

Superfamily Argiopoidea

side are not so widely separated as are the anterior median and
posterior median eyes. The chelicene in both sexes are shorter
than the cephalothorax, those of the female are only a little more
than half as long as the cephalothorax.

This is a smaller species than T. elongata; the female measures
from one fourth to three eighths inch in length. The abdomen

Fig. 424- TETRAGNATHA ELONGATA, FEMALE

is only a little more than twice as long as the cephalothorax; it
is proportionately shorter than that of either the preceding or
the following species.

Tetragnatha laboriosa (T. la-bo-ri-o'sa). — The lateral eyes
of each side are widely separated, being about the same distance
apart as are the anterior median and the posterior median eyes;

412

Superfamily Argiopoidca

the second row of eyes is somewhat recurved, but not so marked K
so as in the following species. In the male the patella and tibia
of the pedipalp are nearly equal in length. In the female the
abdomen (Fig. 426) is less than three times as long as the cephal-

Fig. 425. TETRAGNATHA ELONGATA, MALE

othorax. The full-grown female is about one third inch in length;
the male is a little smaller.

This species is common in meadows, where it makes its web
between stems of grass. It shows no preference lor moist sit-
uations, in fact, I have found it more common in dry fields than
in the vicinity of water.

4'3

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Tetragnaiha straminea (T. stra-min'e-a). — This is the most
common species in the Northern States of the group of species
in which the lateral eyes of each side are more widely separated

'Fig. 426.
TETRAGNATHA LABORIOSA, LATERAL ASPECT OF ABDOMEN

than are the anterior lateral and posterior lateral eyes, the genus
Eu gnat ha of some writers. The length of the body is from one
fourth to three eighths of an inch. The cephalothorax is light

Fig. 427- TETRAGNATHA STRAMINEA

yellow with two parallel gray stripes. The abdomen is usually
three times as long as the cephalothorax (Fig. 427); it is silvery
white above and dark beneath with two parallel gray stripes.

The male can be easily distinguished from our other two
species of this group by the character given in the table above.
In the case of the female the distinction between this species
and T. vermiformis is not so well-marked; but 1 am unable to point
out a more easily recognized means of separating the two.

Tetragnaiha vermiformis (T. ver-mi-for'mis). — This species
is slightly larger than the preceding, the female measuring about
one half inch in length. The male is distinguished by the fact
that the tibia of the palpus is not longer than the patella. The

414

Superfamily Argiopoidea

female agrees with that of T. straminea in that the endite of the
pedipalp reaches the tip of the claw of the chelicerae; but dif-
fers in having the outer side of the chelicera not so obviously
concave. This is a widely distributed but uncommon species.
Tetragnatha pallidula (T. pal-lid'u-la). — This is a widely
distributed species in the East but it is not common. It can be
easily recognized by the characters given in the table above.

Genus EUCTA (Euc'ta)

This genus is very closely allied to Tetragnatha; but the
members of it are easily recognized by the fact that the tip of the
abdomen projects a considerable distance beyond the spinnerets
(Fig. 428). The abdomen is very long and slender.

I have found by observing living individuals that the tail of
these spiders can be extended and contracted a considerable

Fig. 428. EUCTA CAUDATA

distance, so that the length of the abdomen may vary greatly
from moment to moment.

1 have not seen the web of Euda and can find no description
of it; it probably resembles that of Tetragnatha. The spiders of
this genus that I have collected were swept from aquatic plants
projecting from the water of marshes. I have collected them both
in New York and in Mississippi.

Eucta caudata (E. cau-da'ta). — This species resembles very

closely Tetragnatha straminea except in the shape of the abdomen,

which is longer and has a tail about one fourth of the length of

the abdomen extending backward beyond the spinnerets (Fig.

428).

Subfamily METING (Me-ti'nae)

The Met ids (Me'tids)

The metids are closely allied to the tetragnathids and by some
writers are classed in the same subfamily. The two subfamilies agree

4>5

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in having the epigastric plates not
marked by transverse furrows;
but in the Metinae the epigastric
furrow is nearly straight, (Fig.
429), and not strongly procurved
as in Tetragnatba. In the Metinae
there is a rudimentary external
condyle on the chelicerae, and
the epigynum of the female is
often more or less developed.

Some of the metids live in
caves and other dark places;
others build their webs on bush-
es and trees, and among these
are some of the most brilliantly
coloured of our spiders.

The webs of the Metids,
except Hent{ia, resemble those of
Tetragnatba in being more or less
nearly horizontal, and in having
an open hub. In some the orb is
accompanied by a barrier web;
Hentna builds a peculiar web.

Fig. 42g. LEUCAUGE VENUSTA, „ r . . . .

ventral aspect Seven genera of the Metinae

are represented in our fauna;
these can be separated by the following table.

table of genera of the meting

A. Lateral eyes of each side near together.

B. Eyes nearly equal in size; clypeus narrow.
C. Posterior femora with a single or double fringe of hairs
on the external face of the basal half.
D. Tibiae and metatarsi of the first and second legs
studded with many triangular thorn-like points.
P. 424. Plesiometa

DD. Tibiae and metatarsi of the first and second legs not
studded with points. P. 421. Leucauge

CC. Posterior femora not fringed.

D. Abdomen with a hump on each side near the base.
P. 417. Hentzia

416

Superfamily Argiopoidea

DD. Abdomen without basal humps. P. 419. Meta
BB. Anterior median eyes much smaller than the others;
clypeus wide. P. 424. Nesticus

AA. Lateral eyes of each side distant.

B. Posterior median eyes small and close together. P. 425.

DOLICHOGNATHA

BB. Posterior median eyes equal to the posterior lateral in
size and widely separate. P. 425. Azilia

Genus HENT7IA (Hentz'i-a)

The cephalothorax is oval, with the median furrow in the
form of a circular pit. The abdomen is cylindrical, much longer
than wide, and is furnished with a hump on each side near the
base; this characteristic distinguishes the members of this genus
from Meta which they closely resemble in the characteristics
presented by the eyes and mouth-parts.

Only a single species has been found in our fauna.

The Basilica Spider, Hentfia basilica, (H. ba-sil'i-ca). — The
adult female measures from one fourth to nearly one third inch
in length. The cephalothorax is yellow or olive, with a blackish
median stripe, and with the margin dark. The cylindrical
abdomen projects forward over the thorax and backward beyond
the spinnerets. It is yellow striped with blackish brown;
the folium extends the entire length of it. On the basal
half of the length of the abdomen, the folium is wide, and
consists of a median dark line, and on each side two dark lines
extending back from the hump; alternating with these dark
lines are yellow or yellowish bands. On the caudal half of the
abdomen, the folium is narrower and more nearly solid in
colour. Figure 430 represents a side view of this spider with
the legs removed.

This spider was first discovered by Doctor McCook and its web
described by him. He has given an extended account of it in the
first volume of his "American Spiders." As I have never seen
the species in the field, I make a condensed statement of this ac-
count. The web was a composite one, consisting of an irregular
net and an open silken dome, suspended within it. Beneath
the dome, and from two to three inches distant, there was a light
sheet of cobweb, which may have been the collapsed remnant of

417

Superfamily Argiopoldea

an old dome. The dome consisted of a large number of radii,
which were about one sixteenth inch apart at the bottom of the
dome, and a spiral line, which was attached to the radii in the
same way that the spiral line of the notched zone of an ordinary
orb is attached. Doctor McCook does not state whether this line
was dry or viscid. His account was based on observations made
on a single web, which he found near Austin, Tex. It was hung
about two feet from the ground upon a bush, which stood in the
midst of a grove of young live oaks.

Later, Dr. Geo. Marx observed several specimens of this spe-
cies in the shrubbery of some parks in Washington, D. C. He
watched the building of the dome. This was, when first observed,

Fig. 43°- HENTZIA BASILICA

a horizontal orb, with more than fifty radii, supporting the spiral
line. After the completion of the orb its margin was pulled down
by means of lines extending from it and its centre was elevated
until the dome-shaped form was attained.

It is very desirable that further observations should be made
upon this remarkable orb. Is the spiral line dry and inelastic,
like the thread of the notched zone of other orbs, or is it viscid and
elastic? In the former case the web could be regarded as a
specialization of the Linyphia type, as illustrated by Linyphia
marginata; in the latter, as a modified web of Aranea. The former
would be a connecting link between the webs of the Linyphiidae
and those of the Argiopidae; the latter, a highly specialized argi-
opid web.

418

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus META (Me'ta)

The lateral eyes of each side are near together; the eight eyes
are nearly equal in size; the clypeus is but little if at all wider
than the diameter of an anterior median eye; the cheliceras are
long, stout at the base, and strongly arched forward near the base,

Fig. 431. META MENARDII, FEMALE

the endites are longer than wide, narrowed at the base and blunt
at the apex.

Meta is represented in this country by a single well-known
species.

Mela menardii (M. me-nar'di-i). — This is a dark brown spider
with translucent and yellowish markings. The female (Fig. 4^1),
when full-grown measures one half inch or more in length; the
abdomen is longer than wide, and high in front. The cephalo-
thorax has median and lateral stripes; the abdomen has an

419

Superfamily Argiopoidea

irregular net-work of light markings as shown in the figure. The
adult male (Fig. 432), is nearly three eighths inch in length. The
cephalothorax is large and broad; the abdomen, of moderate size.
The light markings of the abdomen are more marked near the

Fig. 432. META MENARDII, MALE

middle line than in the female. The tarsus of the pedipalp bears,
on the upper side near its base a very prominent spur, which is
hooked at the tip.

This cave-inhabiting species I find common in deep recesses
in the cliffs on the shores of Cayuga Lake, and especially in those
that are so situated that the sun does not shine into them, and
even in such of these as are darkened by a dense growth of shrub-
bery at the mouth. I have also found them in a culvert under a

420

Superfamily Argicpoidca

highway and in a dark tunnel through which water was flowing.
It is a widely distributed species; Simon states that it is found in
.Madagascar as well as in America.

The webs are usually inclined; but they vary from vertical
to horizontal. The spider hangs from the hub of the web but
when disturbed, retreats quickly by means
of a trapline, to the rocks supporting the
web. The orbs are of moderate size, from
six to ten inches in diameter. The hub is
open; the notched aone is narrow, usually
consisting of from three to five turns; the
clear space is wide; and the viscid spirals
are from fifteen to thirty in number.

Meta must be a very patient hunter. \
rarely observe insects in its web, which are
almost invariably in perfect condition at all
times of theday. On the other hand this spi-
der suffers little from competition in its dark
and damp retreats. Occasionally a Theridion
tepidariorum builds a web in the same cave.

The egg-sacs are large (Fig. 433), snow-white, and so trans-
lucent that the ball of eggs can be seen within. They are sus-
pended from the roof of the cave, near the web, by a short thread.

Genus LEUCAUGE (Leu-cau'ge)

The members of this genus can be separated from Meta, to
which they are closely allied, by the fringe of hairs on the posterior

femora (Fig. 434);
and by their much
more brilliant col-
ouring, being green
and silver - white,
with bronze and
sometimes copper-
red markings.
These spiders are
even more closely
allied to the
following genus, from which they can be distinguished by the
absence of the armature of the first two pairs of legs characteristic

Fig. 433- EGG-SAC OF
META MENARDII

42 1

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of that genus. The abdomen is about twice as long as wide, blunt
at both ends, and projects far over the cephalothorax. The legs
are long and slender, especially the first two pairs.

The genus contains more than one hundred species, but only
one has been found in our fauna.

The beautiful Leucauge, Leucauge venusta (L. ve-nus'ta). —
This is a common and widely distributed species. It is a bright
green and silver-white spider, tinged with golden, and sometimes
with orange-yellow or copper-red spots. In the female the cephal-
othorax is yellowish with a dark green stripe in the middle and
one on each side. The abdomen is egg-shaped twice as long as

wide, with the front end
rounded and projecting above
the cephalothorax. 1 1 is silver-
white above, with a dark line
in the middle, from which
extend four pairs of more or
less distinct bars, as shown in
Fig. 435. On the sides of the
abdomen there are two vellow-
ish stripes. Sometimes there
are two bright orange-yellow
or copper-red spots above
near the hind end of the ab-
domen, and a large spot of the
same colour on the ventral side
near the middle. None of the
specimens that I have taken in
New York have the red spots
but in all that I have taken
The length of body is one fifth

Fig. 435. LEUCAUGE VENUSTA

in the South they are present,
to one fourth inch.

The males are half as large as the females; with longer legs,
and similar colours.

The specific name venusta or beautiful, applied to this spider
is well deserved, for it is one of the most beautiful of all our
spiders. It is a very widely distributed species, extending beyond
the limits of the United States both north and south.

Unlike Mela, this spider lives in open, well-lighted situations.
It builds its web on shrubs and trees. The webs are horizontal

422

Superfamily Argiopoidea

or inclined, and are sometimes more than one foot across, with
very many turns of the spiral thread, presenting a beautiful
appearance. One web that I examined carefully had a notched
zone of five turns, a wide clear space, and a viscid zone of sixty-
two turns. Figure 456 represents the central part of a web of
this species.

The web is usually nearly horizontal with a barrier web below;

Fig. 436. CENTRE OF WEB OF LEUCAUGE Yi:\l STA

sometimes the barrier web is wanting. When present it consists
of a few lines extending in all directions like a loose web of Tberid-
ion.

Sometimes the spider rests in the barrier web or between it
and the orb, with a trap line leading to the edge of the hub. But

4^3

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the more usual position is on the orb with the tip of the abdomen
at the centre of the open hub, and with the first and second pairs
of legs on radii of the clear space and the third and fourth legs
on the notched zone.

This species is the Epeira hortorum of Hentz.

Genus PLESIOMETA (Ple-si-o-me'ta)

This genus has been recently separated from Leucauge, which
it resembles in the possession of the characteristic fringe of hairs
on the external face of the basal half of the posterior femora
(Fig. 434). It differs from Leucauge in having the tibiae and meta-
tarsi of the first two pairs of legs studded with many triangular,
thorn-like points. In the single described species, the central part
of the epigynum bears a prominent tubercle which projects at
right angles to the length of the abdomen.

Plesiometa argyra (P. ar'gy-ra). — This is a Central American
species which extends its range into the southern portions of the
United States. It bears a striking resemblance to the beautiful
Leucauge, but is somewhat larger and can be readily distinguished
by the characters given in the above generic description.

Genus NESTICUS (Nes'ti-cus)

The lateral eyes of each side are near together; the anterior
median eyes are much smaller than the others; the clypeus is
wide; and the tarsi are without accessory claws.

These spiders resemble Theridion in appearance and are
placed in the Theridiidae by some writers; they live in caves, in
mines, in tunnels, and in other similar situations. Four species
have been found in this country.

Nesticus pallidas (N. pal'li-dus). — The female measures one
seventh inch in length. The cephalothorax and legs are pale
orange-brown, the abdomen is yellowish white with brown hairs.

The species was described by Emerton from specimens taken
in a cave in Virginia, among stalactites where there was no day-
light. And I have found specimens in a cave near Austin, Tex.

Nesticus carteri (N. car'ter-i). — The cephalothorax and legs
are light yellow; the abdomen in some specimens, bears indistinct
gray markings.

424

Superfamily Argiopoidea

This spider has been found in several caves in Kentucky.

Nesticus augustinus (N. au-gus-ti'nus). — The body of the fe-
male measures nearly one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax
and legs are yellow; the abdomen light yellowish gray, marked
with little flecks and also with brownish points bearing the
hairs.

This species was found in the cellars of Fort St. Augustine,
Fla. It is the Gaucelmus augustinus of Kevserling.

Nesticus cavicola (N. ca-vic'o-la). — Only the maie of this
species has been described. This is very small, measuring only
one sixteenth inch in length. It is wholly pale whitish, clothed
with long bristly hairs. It has only six eyes, the anterior median
eyes are not visible.

This spider was found in a cave in Arizona.

Genus AZ1L1A (A-zil'i-a)

The eight eyes are all large; the posterior median eyes are a
little larger than the posterior lateral; and the four posterior
eyes are nearly equally distant from each other. The abdomen
is rounded in front, narrowed and sloping behind.

The following is our only known species.

A{ilia vagepida (A. vag-e-pic'ta). — The female measures
nearly one half inch in length. It was described from Georgia.
No observations have been published regarding its habits.

Simon states that some species of A^ilia, which he observed
in Venezuela, live in the darkest parts of forests, under damp rocks,
and spin an orb-web, which has a large free zone between the hub
and the viscid spiral.

Genus DOLICHOGNATHA (Dol-i-chog'na-tha)

The lateral eyes of each side are separated by fully the

diameter of one of them; the anterior median eyes are larger than

the anterior lateral; the posterior median eyes are small, close

together and widely separated from the posterior lateral eyes.

The anterior metatarsi are armed with a series of setre below.

The following is our only described species.

Dolichognatha tuberculata (I), tu-ber-cu-la'ta). — The female
measures one eighth inch in length. The cephalothorax is nearly

425

Superfamily Argiopoidea

one half as long as the entire body. The abdomen bears, on the
dorsal surface, two pairs of tubercles.

This species was described from Florida. Nothing is known
regarding its habits. Simon states that the web of Dolicbognatha
is not an orb-web, but a delicate sheet under which the spider hangs
like a Linyphia. It is very desirable that the habits of our species
be observed; for this is certainly a remarkable variation from the
usual habits of the family.

Subfamily NEPHILIN^ (Neph-i-li'nae)

The Silk Spiders

The members of this subfamily are remarkable for the large
quantity'and the great strength of their silk, which is being used,
to a limited extent, for the production of fabrics. For this reason
they are here designated as the silk spiders.

The Nephilinas are distinguished from the preceding sub-
families of the Argiopidas by the presence of transverse furrows on
the epigastric plates, and from the following subfamilies of this
family by the greater length of the labium, which is longer than
broad. The legs are relatively long; the metatarsi and tarsi to-
gether are longer than the patellae and tibia? together. The pos-
terior row of eyes are straight.

The subfamily includes only a single genus, Nephila.

Genus NEPHILA (Neph'i-la)

The cephalothorax is longer than wide, the eyes are quite
small and are nearly equal in size. In the female the eyes are
separated into three groups, the lateral eyes being far removed
from the median eyes; the lateral eyes of each side are situated
on a tubercle. The legs are long. The adult females are of large
size. The males are very much smaller than the females; and in
this sex the eyes are closer together than in the female.

About sixty species of this genus are known. They occur
in the tropics and in the warmer portions of the subtropical
regions; only one or perhaps two of them extend into our fauna.
The following is well known.

Nephila clavipes (N. clav'i-pes).— - The adult female (Fig.
437) measures from seven eighths to one and one tenth inches

426

Superfamily Argiopoidca

in length. The abdomen is long with nearly parallel sides. The
legs are long; and excepting the third pair are clothed with tufts
of hair. The cephalothorax is black above, but covered, except
in spots, with silver-coloured hairs. The abdomen is olive-brown
variously marked with yellow and white spots and stripes. The

Fig. 437- NEI'HII.A CLAVIPES, ADULT FEMALE

markings of the young differ somewhat from those of the adult

(Fig. 438).

The male is small, the female weighing more than one hundred
times as much as the male. The length of the body is one fourth
inch, and the legs spread less than one inch in a longitudinal and

427

Superfamily Argiopoidea

three fourths of an inch in a lateral direction. The general
colour of both body and legs is dark brown. The legs lack the
tufts of hairs characteristic of the female.

The male, in the adult state at least, spins no web, but lives
in the web of the female. Comparatively few specimens of this

sex are found in collections; but
Mr. Schwartz states that it is just
as common as the female, but that
it is easily overlooked from its small
size and the fact that it always oc-
curs opposite the large body of the
female on the other side of the web.
This remarkable spider attract-
ed attention very early. It was de-
scribed by Linnaeus in his Systema
Naturce (1767). It has been com-
monly known by American writers
under the name Ncphila plumipes,
which, however, according to Simon,
is correctly applied to a species from
the Islands of the South Sea.

Nephila davipes is widely dis-
tributed through the southern states. It builds large webs
frequently two or three feet in diameter in shady forests.
The supporting lines of these webs are frequently exceed-
ingly strong and are apt to attract the attention of people
who run into them in going through such forests. The
webs of this spider differ in several very striking features from
those of other orb-weavers. They are slightly inclined. The
most striking feature at first sight is the looped nature of the
viscid lines (Fig. 439). In the webs of old spiders the loops
occupy but little more than one half of a circle. The webs of
•younger spiders are much more nearly complete orbs (Fig. 440).

Unlike other orb-weavers which rebuild their webs at frequent
intervals, this spider makes use of the same web for a long period
replacing only the viscid lines. Correlated with this fact are
several features which contribute to the permanency of the web.
The radii are branched so that the interval between two adjacent
radii in the outer portions of the web is not greater than that
between two near the centre (Fig. 439). The guy-line, corre-

428

Fig. 438. NEPHILA CLAVIPES,
YOUNG FEMALE

Fig. 439- NEPHILA CLAVIPES, WEB OF AN OLD SPIDER

Fig. 440. NEPHILA CLAVIPES, WEB OF A TOUNG M'IDER

429

Superfamily Argiopoidea

sponding to the spiral guy-line of other orb-weavers like the viscid
line, is looped back and forth and remains a permanent part of the
web. Its attachment to the web is of a much more firm nature
than is that of the spiral guy-line of other orb-weavers where its
use is limited to the short period of construction of the web. As
it crosses each radius it is united with it for a short distance in a

Fig. 441. NEPHILA CLAVIPES, SECTION OF WEB SLIGHTLY ENLARGED

way similar to that in which the spiral guy-line of other orb-
weavers is attached to the radii in the notched zone. This is
well-shown in Fig. 441. As this guy-line is pulled taut it draws
the radius out of its direct course. By reference to Fig. 441
it will be seen that the direction of these notches alternate in the

430

Superfamily Argiop&L-a

successive turns of the spiral showing that the spider passed back
and forth, in making it.

This notched nature of the spiral is doubtless correlated with
the fact that the spiral is to remain a permanent part of the web,
and is made of dry and inelastic silk as is the case with the few
turns of the spiral guy-line constituting the notched zone of an
ordinary orb-web.

As the turns of the viscid lines are spun in the spaces between
the turns of the guy-line it results that the viscid threads are in
groups as shown in Fig. 441.

The viscid silk and the dry silk differ in colour, the former
being yellow, the latter white. The viscid drops are frequently
so large that they can be easily seen with the unaided eye. Ac-
cording to Doctor Wilder ('66) the yellow silk is spun from the
fore spinnerets.

In the case of old spiders where the abdomen is filled with
eggs and movement is consequently more laborious, the spider
repairs only one half of the web each day. Figure 442 represents
a web, one half of which was repaired the night before the picture
was taken. The spider that made this web was under observation
for a considerable time and it was found that each night she re-
built one half of the web. During the period that this spider
was under observation there was a very severe storm, five inches
of rain falling in the course of a few hours. When the web war
visited on the following morning it was found that it had been
repaired throughout. (Fig. 439.) In repairing the web this
large spider walked sideways with her head directed upward
and her legs extending over two or three turns of the spiral guy-
line. As stated above, the web is slightly inclined and the spider
hangs throughout the day from the lower side of the hub.

The silk of the spiders of the genus Nephila surpasses in
strength and in beauty that of the silkworm; and it is being util-
ized to some extent. The more important of the investigations
which demonstrated the practicability of using this silk were
the following: those made in this country by Prof. Burt G.
Wilder, with Nephila davipes; those by Pere Camboni, a French
Roman Catholic missionary in Madagascar, with Nephila mada-
gascanensis; and those by some Chinese at Yun-Nun. with
Nephila clavata.

Professor Wilder published an account of his experiments

43>

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,
Oct. 1865, and in the Atlantic Monthly for August, 1866; but no
practical application has been made of them in this country. In
Madagascar, however, the French have founded schools for the
instruction of the natives in the methods of rearing the spiders, and

Fig. 442. NEPHILA CLAVIPES, WEB OF AN OLD SPIDETt;
ONE HALF OF THIS WEB HAS BEEN RECENTLY REPAIRED

in winding, spinning, and weaving the silk. I have not at hand
information as to what is being done by the Chinese.

The method of obtaining the silk from these spiders is very
different from that in which the silk of the silkworm is procured,
which is by unwinding the cocoons. It is also different from that
used in the earlier attempts to utilize the silk of spiders, which
was by carding the silk of the' egg-sacs. The silk of Nephila is
obtained by pulling it directly from the body of the living spider.

The full-grown spider is fastened in a tiny stanchion which
fits over the body between the cephalothorax and the abdomen,
in such a way that the spider is firmly held without injury, and

432

Superfamily Argiopoidea

so that the legs are kept away from the spinnerets. By lightly
touching the spinnerets a thread can be obtained, and by slowly
pulling this thread it will be constantly lengthened by a flow of
silk from the spinning tubes. A thread of silk is drawn in this
way from each of a considerable number of spiders at the same
time; and all are twisted into a single larger thread, by a mechani-
cal twister, from which it passes to a reel.

This process was shown at the Paris Exposition; and a com-
plete set of bed hangings made from the silk of Nepbila were
exhibited there.

Subfamily ARGIOPINiE (Ar-gi-o-pi'nae)
The Garden Spiders

Although the members of this subfamily are not so striking
in appearance as is the species of Nepbila described in the pre-
ceding pages, in the colder parts of our country, where Nepbila
is not found, some of them are the most conspicuous of our orb-
weavers. These have been commonly known in this country as
the garden spiders; and 1 have adopted this as the popular name
for the subfamily, although in the Old World it has been applied
to certain large and conspicuous species of Aranea.

The argiopinae differ from the preceding and from the follow-
ing subfamilies in having the posterior row of eyes strongly pro-
curved. They differ from Nepbila in that the labium is broader
than long, and from the Araneinae in the relatively longer legs,
and in having the metatarsi and tarsi taken together, longer than
the patellae and tibiae.

The web of the garden spiders is a typical orb-web; but it is
accompanied by a barrier web, which consists of an irregular net-
work of lines stretched behind the orb. Sometimes a barrier web
is built on each side of the orb. The barrier web doubtless
serves as a protection to the spider. In it, at the mating season
the male is often found. But the immature males resemble the
females in their web-building habits. The orb is not provided
with a trapline. The spider hangs on the hub of the web, through-
out the day. When disturbed it either drops to the ground or
runs off from the web upon the supporting plants. If all is
quiet for a few minutes, the spider returns to its station on the
hub. The web is often provided with a stabilimentum. Our

433

Superfamily Argiopoidea

common species mature late in the summer, and make their egg-
sacs at this season.

This subfamily is represented in our fauna by four genera;
the females of these can be separated as follows:

A. Anterior median eyes nearer to each other than to the an-
terior lateral eyes; adult females large.
B. Vulva of female divided by a septum into a pair of equal
concavities.
C. Abdomen scalloped or lobate on the sides. P. 442.

Argiope
CC. Abdomen more or less evenly rounded on the sides.

P. 438. Metargiope

BB. Vulva of female not divided by a septum; but the atrio-

lum of the epigynum is extended into a broad, convex

process, with a single cavity beneath it. P. 434. Miranda

AA. Eyes of the anterior row almost equidistant; both sexes

small. P. 443. Gea

Genus MIRANDA (Mi-ran'da)

The cephalothorax is flat; the head is small; the second row
of eyes is so strongly procurved that the posterior lateral eyes are
almost as far forward as the anterior median eyes. The vulva of
the female is not divided by a septum; but the atriolum of the
epigynum is extended into a broad, convex process, with a single
cavity beneath it. The two sexes differ greatly in size, the males
being small while the females are very large. The following is
a very common species.

TheOrange Garden Spider, Miranda aurantia (M.au-ran'ti-a).
— This is a spider that often attracts attention on account of its
large size, bright colouring, and the beauty of its web. The adult
female frequently measures an inch or more in length, and is
marked with spots and bands of bright orange (Fig. 443). The
cephalothorax is covered with silvery white hairs. The abdomen
is oval, with a pair of humps at the base. The ground colour is
black marked with bright yellow or orange spots. On each lateral
margin of the abdomen the yellow spots form an almost continu-
ous band. In the black band between these two rows of spots
there are from one to three pairs of yellow spots.

434

Fig. I4.v Fig. 444.

MIRANDA AURAXTIA, ADULT FEMALE MIRAXDA AURAXTIA, VOUXG MALE

Fig. 44s. MIRANDA AURANTIA, TOUNG I! M\U.

435

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The male differs greatly from the female, being only about
one fourth as long; the cephalothorax is yellowish brown; the
abdomen bears a broad brown band along the middle of the back,
and on each side a zigzag band of white; the palpal organ is large.

The young of this species differs much in appearance from the
adult, a difference due largely to a banding of the legs; Fig. 444
represents an immature male, and Fig. 445, an immature female.

The genus Miranda to which this species belongs was recently
separated from Argiope by F. O. Pickard-Cambridge in the
Biologia Centrali Americana. This species has been commonly
known under the name Epeira riparia given to it by Hentz in
1847; it has also been known under the name Epeira cophinaria
given to it by Walckenaer in 1837; but it was described and
figured by Lucas in 1833, under the specific name used here.

The web of this species is often found upon shrubs; but it is
more frequently made upon herbaceous growth in marshy places
and upon grass in meadows and pastures. It seems strange that
so large a species should choose such feeble supports for its web.

When first made in a protected situation and before it is injured
by wind and insects it is a very beautiful structure, resembling
the web of the next species shown in Fig. 449, which is of a web
made in our insectary. But under natural conditions the sym-
metry of the web is very soon lost. Figure 446 is from a photo-
graph of one taken in the field.

These webs are large, sometimes two feet in diameter. The
hub is sheeted and usually furnished with a stabilimentum; the
notched zone is broad, and extends nearly to the viscid spiral;
the free zone is therefore limited. The web is inclined and the
spider rests upon the hub on the lower side of the web; but it
sometimes passes through the narrow free zone to the upper side.
The web is usually accompanied by what I have termed a barrier
web; this consists of an irregular net-work of lines stretched behind
the orb, and probably serves to protect the spider from attacks.
Sometimes a barrier web is built upon each side of the orb.

The two sexes have similar web-building habits; but when
the males reach maturity they wander in search of the females and
are then to be found in the webs of the females, usually upon the
barrier web. In the Northern States, this occurs late in August
and in September.

During the late summer and in the autumn, grasshoppers

436

Fig. 440. WEB OK MIRANDA AURAXTIA, GREATLY REDUCED. FROM A I'liOT' KIRAHI ''

IN THE FIELD

4 37

Superfamily Argiopoidea

form a large part of the food of this and. -the following species.
It is interesting to see how skillfully the spider manages her huge
prey. The instant it becomes entangled she rushes to it, and
spreading her spinnerets far apart she fastens a swathing band
to it; then by a few dexterous kicks she rolls it over two or three
times and it is securely swathed in a shroud; a quick bite with her
chelicerae completes the destruction of the victim.

In the autumn, the female makes a pear-shaped egg-sac as
large as a hickory nut (Fig. 197, p. 209); this is suspended
among the branches of some shrub or in the top of some weed,
and is fastened by many ropes of silk so that the storms of winter
shall not tear it loose. Within this egg-sac the young spiders pass
the winter.

The egg-sacs of this species are frequently infested by Ichneu-
mon parasites and these parasites are preyed upon in turn by
secondary parasites. It is easy to rear specimens of both by keep-
ing egg-sacs in a closed bottle.

Genus METARGIOPE (Met-ar-gi'o-pe)

This genus agrees with Mi-
randa in all of the characteristics
given for that genus above except
that the vulva of the female is
divided by a septum into a pair
of equal concavities; it differs
from the following genus in the
form of the abdomen, which is
more or less evenly rounded on
the sides. Three species have
been found in the United States.
The following is the only widely
distributed one; the other two
occur in Arizona, and perhaps
elsewhere in the Southwest.

The Banded Garden Spider,
Metargiope trifasciala (M. tri-
fas-ci-a'ta). — Almost as conspicuous as the species just de-
scribed is a closely allied one, the banded Argiope. This is a
slightly smaller species, the adult female measuring from three

438

i-ig. 447.

METARGIOPE TRIFASCIATA,
ADULT FEMALE

E-

PL,

E-

439

Superfamily Argiopoidea

fifths to four fifths inch in length ; and it is very differently coloured.
The ground colour is white or light yellow; the abdomen is crossed
by many, transverse lines (Fig. 447); and there are several longi-
tudinal lines on the caudal half of
the abdomen as shown in the figure.
The male is about one fifth inch in
length; the legs and cephalothorax are
yellowish and the abdomen white.

The young female is silvery white,

Fig. 450. STABILIMENTUM OF
METARGIOPE, NARROW TYPE

Fig. 451. STABILIMENTUM OF
METARGIOPE, LACE-LIKE TYPE

due to a covering of white hairs; on the caudal half of the abdo-
men, the coating of hairs is not continuous but forms three stripes
(Fig. 448). The sternum is bright yellow and there are two yel-
low bands on the lower side of the abdomen.

It is an interesting fact that the hairs forming the silvery
coat point toward the head; as the spider hangs head down-
ward this position fits them for shedding rain.

The specific name of the species, trifasciata, is appropriate

440

Superfamily Argiopoidea

when the immature spider is considered, the three stripes on the
caudal half of the abdomen being well-marked; but it is not a
fortunate designation, for the bands of the adult are many more
than three. The species was named fasciata by Hentz and trans-
versa by Emerton. Either of these names would be more appro-
priate, but as trijasciata is the older name it must be used.

Fig. ^2. EGG-SAC OF METARGIOPE TRIFASCIATA

This is a widely distributed species both in the Old World
and in the New; in this hemisphere it extends from the United
States to Chili.

The web of the banded Argiope closely resembles that of
the preceding species described above. A very perfect specimen
that was made in our insectary is represented by the frontispiece.
This figure is greatly reduced; the cefitre of this web is shown
natural size at page 198. Sometimes the barrier web of this
species is sheet-like, concave, and almost as large as the orb.

There are great variations in the hub of the orb of this

441

Superfamily Argiopoidea

species. In some it is merely sheeted ; in others there is a stabil-
imentum. The stabilimentum is sometimes a narrow wavy band

(Fig. 450) and sometimes
a broad sheet of lace
(Fig. 451). lhavefound
the more elaborate form
only in the webs of im-
mature individuals.

This spider reaches
maturity somewhat later
in the season than does
the orange Argiope, and
it is sometimes quite late
in the autumn before the
egg-sac is made.

The egg-sac is of
very characteristic form,
not to be mistaken for

Fig. 453. METARGIOPE TRIFASCIATA
MAKING HER EGG-SAC

any other in our fauna. It is cup-shaped
with a flat top (Fig. 452); and is fastened
among the branches of some low shrub or
between the leaves of herbs. In building
the egg-sac the spider makes the flat side
first, and then attaches the mass of eggs
to it, and finally covers the mass of eggs
with the cup-shaped portion. Figure 453
represents a spider making its egg-sac in
one of our breeding cages.

Genus ARGIOPE (Ar-gi'o-pe)

The members of this genus

can

distinguished from all other members of
this subfamily occurring in our fauna by
the form of the abdomen, the margin of
which is lobate.

Of the genus Argiope as now re-
stricted only a single species occurs within

Fig. 454. ARGIOPE

ARGEXTATA (after F. O.

Pickard-Cambridge, )

A A O

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the limits of the United States; formerly all of our Argiopinae
except Gea heptagon were included in it.

The Silvered Garden Spider, Argiope argeniata (A. ar-gen-
ta'ta). — This is a tropical species whose range extends into the
southern part of our territory, being found in the Gulf States and
in the Southwest. The adult female measures three fourths inch
in length. It can be easily recognized by its striking form (Fig.
454)-

Genus GEA (Ge'a)

The cephalothorax is arched; the head is large; the eyes of the
anterior row are nearly equidistant. The two sexes are nearly
equal in size.

Only one species is found in this country.

Gea heptagon (G. hep'ta-gon).— - The adult female measures
one fifth inch in length. The general colours of the cephalothorax
are dark brown with yellowish and blackish markings.

The dorsal field of the abdomen is brown, relieved with
metallic white; there is a black shield-shaped folium in the middle
of the apical half of the abdomen. There are three tubercles on
each side of the abdomen, one at the base, and two near the
middle. It was probably these that suggested the specific name.
The male closely resembles the female in size and markings; but
differs in that the four anterior tibiae are furnished, on the internal
side, with many, long and strong spines.

The web of our species has not been described. That of an
exotic species described by Workman, as quoted by Simon, has
no stabilimentum, and the viscid spirals are numerous and close
together.

This is a southern species which is found as far north as the
District of Columbia.

Subfamily ARANEIN^E (A-ran-e-i'nae)

The Typical Orb-weavers

To this family belong the larger number of our orb-weaving
spiders, including as it does more species than the other six sub-
families of the Argiopidas taken together. As the Araneinae
constitute the central and most abundant type of orb-weavers, 1
give to the subfamily the popular name of the typical orb-weavers.

443

Superfamily Argiopoldea

In the Araneinae, as in the two preceding and in the following
subfamilies, the epigastric plates are marked by transverse fur-
rows (Fig. 455), and the lateral condyle of the chelicerae is dis-
tinct. But these spiders differ from the two preceding subfamilies
in having the legs relatively shorter: and in having, except in a

few cases, the metatarsi and tarsi
together not longer than the patellae
and tibiae. They differ from the
following subfamily in not having
the spinnerets elevated on a large
tubular projection.

The separation of the sub-
family Araneinae into genera has
not been made, as yet, in a satis-
Ffe-45.s- factory manner. The large number

EPIGASTRIC PLATE OF ARANEA r . . . , . .

01 species involved and the presence
of intergrading forms between supposed distinct generic types
make the subject an extremely difficult one. Great differences of
opinion exist regarding the validity of certain genera that have
been proposed. The following classification, therefore, must
be regaided as merely provisional.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE ARANEIN/E

A. Cepiyalothorax either as high as long or with horny out-
growths.
B. Cephalothorax as high as long. P. 447. Scoloderus
BB. Cephalothorax with horny outgrowths. P. 448.

Glyptocranium
AA. Cephalothorax moderately arched and without horny out-
growths.
B. Abdomen with a hump on each side at the base, which
bears irregular tubercles. P. 450. Kaira

BB. Abdomen with or without a hump on each side at the
base; but without tubercles on the humps when present.
C. Median furrow of the thorax when a narrow longi-
tudinal one slight, not reaching the cer'ical groove;
often a pit with transverse extensions.
D. Head and thorax separated by a deep cervical groove
in the female at least. P. 450. Cyclosa

444

Superfamily Argiopoidea

DD. Head and thorax not separated by a well-marked
complete cervical groove.
E. Abdomen with a horny shield. P. 455.

Cercidi a
EE. Abdomen without a horny shield.

F. Abdomen with a median hump or cone at the
base, as well as lateral projections. P. 455.

Marxia
FF. Abdomen without median together with lateral
projections.
G. Posterior median eyes nearly or quite as close
to the posterior lateral eyes as to each other.
P. 457. Zilla

GG. Posterior median eyes much closer to each
other than to the posterior lateral eyes.
H. The tibiae of the first and second pairs of
legs without spines above.
I. Abdomen with spines or humps. P. 460.

Wagneriana

II. Abdomen without spines or humps. P.

461. Metazygia

HH. The tibiae of the first and second pairs of

legs with some spines above, at least one.

I. Abdomen as high behind its middle as at

its base, and elliptical in outline or

broader behind the middle. Small

species with short legs. P. 461.

Singa
II. Abdomen highest toward its base, and
usually broadest near the base.
J. Abdomen with cusps or tubercles behind.
K. Abdomen with several marginal tuber-
cles behind. P. 465. Verrucosa
KK. Abdomen without marginal tubercles
behind; but with two round black
tubercles on the middle line of the
hind part of the abdomen. P. 503.

Friophora
JJ. Abdomen of various forms but without
tubercles behind.

445

Superfamily Argiopoidea

K. Abdomen greatly elevated in front so
that the pedicel is near the middle
of its length. P. 466. Wixia

KK. Abdomen much less elevated in front
than in Wixia.
L. Scape of the epigynum greatly
elongate extending nearly or
quite to the base of the spin-
nerets. Male with a very long
and elbowed embolus. P. 503.

Eriophora
LL. Scape of the epigynum of moderate
length. Embolus of male not el-
bowed as in Eriophora.
M. Metatarsus and tarsus of the
first legs together longer than
the tibia and patella. Males
with no hook on the coxa of
the first legs and no groove
on the femur of the second
legs. P. 462. Metepeira
MM. Metarsus and tarsus of the first
legs not longer than the tibia and
patella except in a few species.
Males with a hook on the coxa
of the first legs and a groove
on the femur of the second legs.
P. 467. Aranea

CC. Thorax with a deep median longitudinal furrow, which
usually extends forward so as to reach the cervical
groove.
D. Elongate spiders, the abdomen being two or three
times as long as wide. P. 507. Larinia

DD. Abdomen not greatly elongate.

E. Tibia of the third legs with a cluster of long cilia

on the anterior side near the base. Second row of

eyes straight or procurved. P. 504. Mangora

EE. Tibia of the third legs without a cluster of long cilia

on the anterior side near the base. Second row of

eyes more or less recurved.

446

Superfamily Argiopoidea

F. Abdomen marked with a broad folium, darker at
the edges and bordered by a white line, and en-
closing a lanciform stripe bordered in a similar
manner. P. 509. Acacesia

FF. Abdomen not marked as in Acacesia.
G. Females.
H. Epigynum with the scape directed back-

ward. P. 495.

Neoscona

HH. Epigynum with the scape directed forward.
P. 5'°- Eustala

GG. Males.

H. Patella of the pedipalps with only one apical

spine. P. 510. Eustala

HH. Patella of the pedipalp with two apical spines.

1. Lateral eyes of each side situated on a

prominent tubercle.

J. Abdomen with a bright green patch on

the dorsum. P. 503.

Eriophora

J J. Abdomen not marked as in Eriophora.

P. 467. Aranea

II. Lateral eyes of each side not situated on a

prominent tubercle. P. 495. Neoscona

Genus SCOLODERUS (Sco-lod'e-rus)

The spiders of this genus are distinguished by a very high
and rounded cephalothorax; this region being as high as long (Fig.
456). Both rows of eyes are
procurved; and the lateral
eyes are placed low down upon
the lateral margins of the
clypeus.

These are tropical spiders;
the range of a single species
extends into the southern part
of the United States.

Scoloderus tuberculiferus (S. tu-ber-cu-lif'e-rus).— - This species
is easily recognized by the peculiar form of the cephalothorax
and of the abdomen (Fig. 456). The cephalothorax is as high as

FiK. 456. SCOLODERUS
TUBERCULIFER1 - SIDE VIEW

447

Superfamily Argiopoldea

long; the abdomen is cylindrical, with two thick cones at the base,
whose summits are bifid. Only the female is described; this
measures one sixth inch in length. It was found in Florida.
This is the Carepalxis tuberculifera of some authors.

Genus GLYPTOCRANIUM (Glyp-to-cra'ni-um)

Our species of this genus can be easily recognized by the form
of the cephalothorax, which bears prominent horny outgrowths and
many smaller warts. The abdomen is subglobose and is as wide
as or wider than long.

Only two species are described from the United States. These
were formerly placed in the genus Ordgarius.

Glyptocranium cornigerum (G. cor-nig'e-rum). — The female
measures one half inch in length. The cephalothorax is red o
reddish brown and yellow, with dark brown markings; the ab-
domen is yellow, with dark or brownish markings upon the basal
part. When resting on a leaf it looks exactly like bird-lime; it
rests with its legs folded so as to increase this resemblance (Fig.
457), which is chiefly due, however, to the colours of the spider.
Figure 458 represents a front view of the cephalothorax. The ab-
domen bears a very prominent pair of shoulder humps. The
male measures only one tenth inch in length; the cephalothorax
bears four large tubercles on the hind part of the head; and the
abdomen is nearly spherical.

This species is found throughout the southern half of the
United States.

Glyptocranium bisaccatum (G. bi-sac-ca'tum). — This species
is a little smaller than the preceding, the adult female measuring
from one third to four tenths of an inch in length. The cephal-
othorax is slightly scalloped at the sides. It rises from the eyes
backward and has at the highest part behind the middle two large
horns. The carapace is covered with conical scattered points.
The abdomen is wider in front than long and extends over the
thorax as far as the two horns (Fig. 459). The cephalothorax is
light brown, darkest in front; the front of the abdomen is light
brown with various whitish irregular markings, the back part is
yellowish white; the under side of the body is white. The male
resembles the female in the general form of the body, but measures
only one eighth inch in length.

448

Fig. 459- GLYPTOCRANIUM
BISACCATUM (after Emerton)

Fig. 460. EGG-SAC OF
G. BISACCATUM (after Emerton)

Fig. 457-
GLYPTOCRANIUM CORNIGERUM ON A LEAF

Fig. 458. .GLYPTOCRANIUM

CORNIGERUM, FRONT VIEW

OF THE CEPHALOTHORAX

Fig. 461. KAIKA ALBA after McCook)

449

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The egg-sac has been figured by Emerton, who first described
the species. It is of the form shown in Fig. 460, of a dark brown
colour, and very firm in texture. The egg-sac was found in Oc-
tober in Connecticut and the young emerged in June.

This species occurs in the Northern States.

Genus KAIRA (Kai'ra)

The cephalothorax is longer than broad, moderately arched,
and without horny outgrowths. The abdomen has a hump on
each side at the base which bears irregular tubercles (Fig. 461).

The following is the only species reported from the United
States:

Kaira alba. — The female (Fig. 461) measures about one third
inch in length. The cephalothorax is triangular ovate, widest
near the base, and yellowish brown in colour. The abdomen is
subglobose, with hump on each side at the base; each hump bears
numerous conical tubercles. The abdomen is chalky white, mot-
tled with blackish spots, and with an indistinct folium.

This species occurs in the Southern States. It is the Epeira
alba of Banks's Catalogue.

'&>*■

Genus CYCLOSA (Cyc'lo-sa)

The eyes are subequal; the posterior median are almost in
contact; the median ocular area is wider in front than behind;
both rows of eyes are recurved; the head and thorax are separated
by a deep cervical groove, in the female at least (Fig. 462).

Five species have been described from the United States;
these can be separated as follows:

A. Caudal end of abdomen bifurcate. P. 453 C. bifurca
AA. Caudal end of abdomen not forked.

B. Abdomen extremely long. P. 453 C. caroll

BB. Abdomen not extremely long.

C. Abdomen with five tubercles, a pair near the base, a
caudal tubercle, which is divided, and one on each
side of this. P. 454. C. walckenari

CC. Abdomen with less than five tubercles.

450

Superfamily Argiopoidea

D. Abdomen of female with a pair of dorsal median

tubercles and with a slender caudal projection.

P. 454. C. turbinata

DD. Abdomen without a dorsal tubercle and with the

caudal projection stout. P. 451.

C. conica

Cyclosa conica (C. con'i-ca). — In the Northern States we
have only one common species of Cyclosa, which is this one. The
full-grown female is about one fourth inch in length and is easily
recognized by the form of the caudal end of the abdomen which
is extended into a prominent hump (Fig. 463); in the male there
is only a slight trace of the hump. The cephalothorax is dark

Fig. 462.
CEPHALOTHORAX OF CYCLOSA

Fig. 463.
CYCLOSA CONICA

gray or black; and the abdomen is mottled with gray and white;
but there are great variations in colour; some individuals are
almost white while others are nearly black.

The web is built upon shrubs, and is common in open wood-
lands. It is a complete orb and is remarkable for its symmetry
and for the fineness of its meshes; there being a large number of
radii, and the turns of the viscid spiral being very close together
(Fig. 464). The foundation lines are often very few in number;
in the web figured here there are only four main ones, which
form a quadrangular space in which the orb is stretched, and
a short secondary one at each corner of this space. The hub
is meshed; there is a distinct notched zone, and a rather wide

45>

Fig. 464. WEB OF CYCLOSA CONICA
452

Superfamily Argiopoidea

free zone. Across the centre of the web there is stretched a
stabilimentum.

The stabilimentum of Cyclosa differs greatly from that of
a garden spider. It often consists largely of the remains of the
insects that the spider has destroyed fastened together and in place
with threads of silk. Frequently a cast skin of the spider is woven
in with the insect remains; and bits of vegetation, as fallen bud-
scales, are utilized. The stabilimentum in a web that was built
near a place where rugs were frequently beaten consisted largely
of lint; evidently the spider had removed all of the fibres that had
lodged in its web and used them in making its stabilimentum.
Sometimes the stabilimentum consists entirely of silk.

There is no retreat, the spider remaining constantly on the
web . It rests on the hub in the centre of the stabilimentum, and
appears like a part of the rubbish fastened in it.

Emerton states that the egg-sacs are fastened into the
stabilimentum in the middle of the summer.

Cyclosa caroli (C. car'o-li). — The characteristic feature of
this species is the very long and slender abdomen. The adult
female measures from one fourth to one third inch in length.

This spider is remarkable for its self protective habits. These
I observed in the jungle near Miami, Fla. The orb of the
adult is about six inches in diameter. The female fastens her
egg-sacs in a series which extends across the orb from the hub
to the upper margin like a stabilimentum, and looks like a dead
twig caught in the web. This band of egg-sacs and the spider are
of the same gray colour. When disturbed the spider rushes to
the band and appears as if it were a part of it. And here it will
cling motionless even when the band is removed from the web.
A spider which 1 removed with its egg-sac and placed in a bottle
was still in this position on the band ten minutes later.

I also observed smaller individuals shake their webs; these
clung to the stabilimentum, projecting the body at right angle
to it, and in this position shook the web violently. The evident
object was to frighten away the intruder.

The young, when they emerge from the egg-sac, are not tailed.

This is a southern species which has been found as far north
as the District of Columbia.

Cyclosa bifurca (C. bi-fur'ca). — The strange form of the
abdomen sharply distinguishes this species from the other species

453

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Fig. 465.
CYCLOSA BIFURCA

of Cyclosa in our fauna. The abdomen is long; the basal half
bears two pairs of humps; the caudal half is more slender and is
bifurcate at the tip (Fig. 465). The body is green mottled with

white; there is a light wavy band on the
side of the abdomen; and the abdomen is
bordered with a black line above, back of the
humps. On the ventral side of the abdomen,
there is a bright red spot between the epigas-
tric furrow and the spinnerets. The legs are
banded with reddish brown.

I found this to be a common species
near Miami, Fla. I first found it in the
jungle near the shore of the bay, where
it made an orb-web with a string of egg-
sacs across it like a stabilimentum. Later
1 found it to be a pest at the cottage
connected with the Sub-tropical Laboratory. There it built its
webs on the ceiling of the veranda and there strings of egg-sacs
hung from the ceiling by the hundred; and at the lower end of
each string of egg-sacs there was a spider.
One of these strings is represented by Fig. 466.
Cyclosa turbinate (C. tur-bi-na'ta). — ■
This species of Cyclosa isdistributed through-
out the United States; but I have found it
much more common in the South than in
the North. The female can be easily dis-
tinguished from the other species of Cyclosa
occurring in our fauna by the shape of the
abdomen (Fig. 467). The abdomen bears a
pair of dorsal median tubercles and is pro-
longed into a slender caudal projection. In
the male the abdomen is rounded and is
marked above at the base with a transverse
white band, which is sometimes interrupted
in the middle, and a pair of white spots in
front of the middle of its length.

This is the Epeira caudata of Hentz.

Cyclosa walckenceri (C. walck-e-nae'ri). — This is a tropical

species whose range extends into the southern part of the United

States. It can be distinguished from our other species by its

Fig. 466. EGG-SACS OF
CYCLOSA BIFURCA

454

Superfamily Argiopoidea

greater number of abdominal tubercles, as indicated in the
table above.

Genus CERCIDIA (Cer-cid'i-a)

This genus is distinguished from the closely allied genera
by the nature of the cuticula of the dorsum of the abdomen, which
is hard and glossy. Two species occur in our fauna.

Cercidia funebris (C. fu'ne-bris).— - This is a small spider,
the female measuring only one sixth inch in length, which has

Fig. 467. CVCLOSA TURBTXATA

been found in Florida. The cephalothorax is reddish brown; the
abdomen glossy black, with a median and lateral stripe of chalks-
white or yellow.

Cercidia prominens (C. prom'i-nens). — The cephalothorax is
red; the chelicerae are red with black spots; the sternum is black;
the legs are yellowish with brown rings; the abdomen is brownish
above, with a large reddish shield nearly covering the dorsum, there
is an indistinct light stripe and behind some transverse black lines.
The cephalothorax has above on the median line two prominent
spines. The length of the body is one fifth inch.

This species was described from New 1 lampshire.

Genus MARX I A (Marx'i-a)

The anterior row of eyes is strongly procurved, the median
eyes being twice as far from the margin of the clypeus as are the

455

Superfamily Argiopoidea

lateral eyes. The lateral eyes of each side are placed under a
conical tubercle. The sternum is at least one half longer than
broad. The abdomen is armed with a median hump or cone at
the base as well as with lateral projections. The patella of the
pedipalp of the male bears

a single spine at the apex, i

Our species are placed in the
genus Pledana by some
writers.

Four species occur in
our fauna; one of these oc-
curs in Florida and one in

Fig. 468. MARXIA STELLATA,
IMMATURE MALE

Arizona. The other two
are the following:

Marxia stellata (M. stel-
la'ta). — This star-shaped
spider is from a quarter to
a third of an inch long and
nearly as broad. The ab-
domen is encircled by a

series of tubercles, eleven, twelve, or thirteen in number (Fig. 468).
The abdomen is grayish brown marked with a light and dark
pattern, which varies in different individuals; the thorax is black
on the sides and brown above; the sternum is brown bordered by
black; and the legs are ringed with dark brown or black.

This spider lives in low bushes and among weeds and grass.

456

Fig. 469.
EGG-SAC OF MARXIA STELLATA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

It makes a complete orb from six to ten inches in diameter. The
hub of the orb is nearly open, the central space being crossed
by comparatively few lines; there is a distinct notched zone,
and a free zone, and, usually, from twenty to thirty-five viscid
spirals.

The spider is sometimes found on its orb in midday; but
usually it rests in a retreat made in the dead head of a plant
forming one of the supports of the web. In this case, the brown
colour of the body and the spines on the abdomen serve to render
the spider inconspicuous.

The mass of eggs is attached to a leaf and enclosed in a mass
of loose brown silk (Fig. 469).

This is a common species both in the North and in the South.

Marxia mcesta (M. moes'ta). — This species is found in the
Southern States. It differs from the preceding in its smaller
number of abdominal tubercles. 'Two shoulder tubercles mark
the base well back of the anterior middle point, leaving thus the
fore part of the abdomen as a wide subtriangular space sloping
toward the front, while the remainder of the dorsum slopes some-
what, though but little, toward the rear. The apex is marked
by a prominent rounded tubercle, resembling those upon the
shoulders, but smaller; on either side of this is a similar smaller
tubercle, and beneath it on the apical wall of the abdomen are
two others in a row, of similar character, but somewhat flattened.
The colour is yellow, much broken by irregular and lateral black
lines upon the sides." (McCook.)

Genus ZILLA (Zil'Ia)

The abdomen is short oval, rather depressed, and without
humps at the base. The posterior median eyes are scarcely more
than one and one half times the diameter of one of them apart,
and as close to the posterior lateral eyes as to each other; the
lateral eyes are slightly separate; and all of the eyes are subequal
in size. The epigynum is without a scape in our species.

Four species of Zilla are found in the United States, at least
three of which are believed to have been introduced from Europe.
They are of moderate size, the largest being about three eighths
of an inch in length. In their general appearance they resemble
spiders of the genus Steatoda of the family Theridiidae. Of the
three species found in the East, Emerton states as follows:

457

Fig. 470. WEB OF ZILLA

458

Superfamily ArgiopoiJca

"The colour of all of the species is gray, with sometimes a
little yellow or pink in the lighter parts. The cephalothorax has
usually, but not always, a dark border at the sides and a middle
dark line that widens and becomes lighter toward the eyes. The
abdomen has a wide middle stripe like Aranea, scalloped at the
sides and crossed at the hinder end by two or three pairs of trans-
verse spots. In front it is almost white or tinted with pink or
yellow, and narrows almost to a point, with a much darker spot
on each side, The sides of the abdomen are marked with oblique

Fig. 471. PALPI OF MALES OF ZILLA

a, '/.'Ma alrica b, Zilla x-notala
c, Zilla molilalia (after Emerton)

Fig. 472. EPIGYXA OF ZILLA
a, Zilla alrica b, Zilla x-notala
c, Zilla montana (after Emerton)

dark marks that extend underneath. The sternum has a light
middle stripe. Under the abdomen is a dark middle stripe, with
light each side of it."

The three species resemble each other so closely that it is
almost impossible to distinguish them except by an examination
of the palpi of the males and the epigyna of the females.

The spiders of this genus usually make an incomplete orb
of the form which 1 have designated as the zilla type of orb web
(Fig. 470); but sometimes they make a complete orb.

Zilla atrica (Z. at'ri-ca). — See above for the more general
characteristics. The palpi of the males are as long as the whole
body, with the femur and tibia both slightly curved and the
tarsus and bulb small (Fig. 471, a). The epigynum of the
female is of the form shown in Fig. 472, a.

459

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Zilla x-notata (Z. x-no-ta'ta). — See above for the more general
characteristics. The palpi of the males are as long as the cephal-
othorax, and the tarsus and bulb small and round (Fig. 471, b).
The epigynum of the female is of the form shown in Fig. 472, b.

Zilla moniana (Z. mon-ta'na). — See above for the more
general characteristics. The palpi of the males are shorter than
in the preceding species, the tibia thicker and the tarsus and bulb
larger (Fig. 471, c). The epigynum of the female is twice as large
as that of either of the preceding species and of the form shown
in Fig. 472, c.

Zilla calif ornica (Z. cal-i-for'ni-ca). — This species is found in
California and in Washington. Only the female has been de-
scribed. The cephalothorax is whitish, with a black marginal seam,
and a large triangular black spot over the head part. The ab-
domen is grayish, with a broad folium, rather silvery near the
middle, black on the edge and with a silvery margin. The sides
are finely striped with black. The epigynum shows a dark trans-
verse area, three times as wide as long and with a small projection
behind from the middle.

Genus WAGNERIANA (Wag-ner-i-a'na)

The abdomen is armed with prominent humps both in front
and behind, but lacks the median hump at the base characteristic
of Marxia. The posterior median eyes are much closer to each
other than to the posterior lateral eyes. The tibiae of the first

and second pairs of legs are with-
out spines above. Two species
are found in Florida; the following
is the more common one:

Wagneriana tauricornis (tau-
ri-cor'nis). — The female meas-
ures about one third inch in
length; the male, about one fifth.
The species is easily recognized by
the prominent humps on the ab-
domen; these are more prominent
in the female (Fig. 473) than in the male. In the male the
shoulder humps are single instead of bifid, and there is a single
lateral one instead of three as in the female. There are four
apical humps in the male and five in the female.

460

Fig- 473-
WAGNERIANA TAURICORNIS

Superfamily Argiopoidea

This species is found in the southern portions of the United
States, and its range extends through Central America.

I studied this spider at Miami, Fla., and noted that it held
its legs closely folded when hanging in its web; and that when
in this position, it appeared like a bit of dirt.

Genus METAZYGIA (Met-a-zyg'i-a)

This genus is represented in the United States by a single
species, which occurs in Florida and in Mexico, and which 1 have
not seen. It differs from Wagneriana in the absence of spines or
humps on the abdomen.

Melalgia wittfeldce (M. witt-fel'dae). — The female measures
a little more than one third inch in length; the male, a little less.
The head is dark brown, the thorax yellow, and the abdomen yellow
or yellowish green, with a large central scalloped folium, outlined
in black.

Genus SINGA (Sin'ga)

The posterior median eyes are closer to eacji other than to the
posterior lateral eyes. The tibia; of the first and second pairs
of legs are armed with some spines above, at least with one. The
abdomen is as high behind its middle as at its base, and elliptical
in outline or broader behind the middle.

This genus includes small species with short legs; they live
among herbage in low open places. The following are our more
common species. Seven others are known to occur in the United
States.

Singa tnmcata (S. trun-ca'ta). — This species measures about
one eighth inch in length. The head is as high as wide. The
cephalothorax is orange-brown except about the eyes where it is
black. The abdomen is orange with indistinct blackish markings
across the hinder part.

Singa variabilis (S. va-ri-ab'i-lis). — The female measures
one sixth inch in length ; the male, one eighth. The cephalothorax
is light orange except about the eyes where it is black. ' The
abdomen is usuallv entirely black, but occasionally has bright
yellow markings (Fig. 474). Sometimes there is a wide middle
stripe, with narrower ones at the sides and two underneath.

d6i

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Sometimes there are only the two lateral stripes, and there are al
variations between these markings." (Emerton.)

Fig. 474. SINGA VARIABILIS (after Emerton)

Singa pratensis (S. pra-ten'sis). — "When
full grown the females are a fifth of an inch F>s- 47s. singa

1 v, it , , 1 j 1 j ■<., PRATENSIS, FEMALE

long, with the abdomen oval and marked with (after Emerton)

a double white stripe in the middle and a single
one on each side (Fig. 475). The cephalothorax is yellow, with
a little black between the middle eyes not extending to the lateral
pairs. The males are marked in the same way." (Emerton.)

Genus METEPEIRA (Met-e-pei'ra)

The metatarsus and tarsus of the first legs together are
longer than the tibia and patella; the lateral condyle of the

chelicerae is comparatively small. In
both of these respects this genus re-
sembles the Metinae more than the
Argiopinas. In the males the bulb of the
palpus bears a median apophysis resem-
bling a double-bladed reaping-hook (Fig.
476). There is no hook on the coxa of
the first legs, and no groove on the femur
of the second; the patella of the pedipalp
bears two spines at its apex. In the
female the tip of the scape of the epigy-
num is recurved.

The following is a common and
widely distributed species.
The Labyrinth Spider, Metepeira labyrinth ea, (M. lab-y-rin'
the-a). — This exceedingly common species is most easily recog-

462

Fig. 476. PALPUS OF MALE OF
METEPEIRA LABYRINTHEA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

nized by the form of its web, wtiich is described below. The
adult female varies from one fourth to two fifths inch in length.
The carapace is dark brown with the ocular area yellow; the
sternum is brown with a central yellow band; the legs are dull yel-
low banded with brown; the abdomen bears a well-marked folium,
in which there is a central band and two pairs of spots extending
laterally from this band (Fig. 477); the sides of the abdomen are
mottled with rich reddish brown.

The male measures one sixth inch in length; it resembles
the female, but has longer legs.

The web of this species is a composite one, consisting of an
incomplete orb and an irregular net (Fig. 478). The irregular net
part of the web resembles the webs
of some theridiid spiders and
like them is a more or less per-
manent structure. The orb is
built in front of and usually slight-
ly below the irregular net. It
varies in form from a nearly com-
plete orb in which the viscid line
forms many complete spiral turns
to an incomplete one in which no
turn of the viscid thread passes
entirely around the web. On one
occasion 1 saw an orb of this
species that was of the zilla type,
but after this was destroyed the
individual that made it made
a complete orb. The hub of the orb is of the meshed type, and
from it there extend several traplines to a retreat. This is
usually situated in the midst of the irregular net, and ordinarily
consists of a bunch of dry leaves enclosing a space lined with silk.
I have observed the webs of the young labyrinth spiders in June;
They were mostly built among dead branches and the retreat
was made entirely of silk; it was usually near a branch, but some-
times it was in the midst of the labyrinth. A little later in the
season, early in July, the spiders made their tents near the centre
of the labyrinth.

! he spiders mature early in the autumn; the males; are then
to be found in the webs of the females. A little later the females

(

A ,

1 :

* m I

U J f

irJ

909' •»

f 1

Ur %

Fig. 477 METEPEIRA
LABYRINTHEA, FEMALE

463

Fig. 478. WEB AND SERIES OF EGG-SACS OF METEPEIRA LABYRINTHEA

464

Superfamily Argiopoidea

begin to deposit their eggs. These are enclosed in a string of
lenticular egg-sacs (Fig. 479), the formation of which extends over
a considerable period of time. The first egg-sac is formed near
the entrance of the retreat, and the others are placed successively
in line below this one, and are fastened to a strong cord of silk.
The cord supporting the egg-sac is stretched between two
branches and is made so strong by the addition of many drag-
lines that the egg-sacs are securely held in place through all the
storms of winter, long after all other
traces of the web are swept away. In
walking through woodlands in the
spring one often encounters these strong
silken cords, each with its string of egg-
sacs securely held in place.

This species is found throughout
the greater part of the United States.

Genus VERRUCOSA (Ver-ru-co'sa)

In this genus the cervical groove
is deeply marked; the head is much
elevated above the thorax; the median
furrow of the thorax closely resembles
that of Aranea; theabdomen is flattened
above, is subtriangular in outline, and
is armed with tubercles behind; the
cuticula of the dorsum is somewhat
hardened. The scape of the epigynum
is elongate.

There is some doubt regarding the
distinctnessof this genus; several authors

class the species placed here in Aranea (Eperia). The following
is our best-known species.

Verrucosa arenata (V. ar-e-na'ta). — The abdomen is sub-
triangular in outline and in the female is nearly as wide in front
as it is long (Fig. 480); it is narrowed behind but is not pointed.
The caudal end bears a number of small tubercles. The most
conspicuous feature is a large, triangular, light-coloured spot on
the abdomen; this is white, yellow, pink, or greenish, varying
in different individuals, and is divided by a mesh of fine, vein-like

465

Fig. 470. EGG-SACS OF
METEPEIRA LABYRINTHEA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

dark lines. The scape of the epigynum is very long reaching half-
way to the spinnerets.

In the male the abdomen is less triangular, not exceeding

the cephalothorax in
width at its base; and
the dorsal spot is apt to
be broken. The legs are
longer and more slender
than in the female; the
metatarsus of the second
pair is strongly curved,
and the tibia of these
legs bears a long forked
spine on the inner face
near the tip.

This is a Southern
species which occasionally
occurs as far north as Phil-
adelphia and Long Island.
It spins a large web with
a coarse mesh and long
Fig. 48o. verrucosa arenata, female guy-lines in forests and

woodlands. When alarmed
it leaves the web by one of the guy-lines unless immediate
danger seems pending when it drops to the ground.

Genus WIXIA (Wix'i-a)

As with the preceding genus,
there is some doubt regarding the
distinctness of this genus from Aranea.
But our only representative can be
distinguished at a glance by the form
of the abdomen, which is greatly
elevated in front so that the pedicel
is near the middle of its length
(Fig. 481). The median furrow is
transverse; the posterior median eyes are larger than the anterior
median; the median ocular area is wider behind than in front
and wider behind than long; the sides of the head are parallel,
and the head is not narrowed in front.

\ 1
V \. /, ^

r 1

1/ ' '

i
1

I 1

■ ' __ J

Fig. 481. WIXIA ECTYPA

466

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Wxxia edypa (W. ec'ty-pa). — The female measures a little
less than one third inch in length and the male is of same size.
The cephalothorax is a long oval; high, truncated, and indented
at the base. The abdomen is ovate, greatly elevated in front
(Fig. 481) and contracted into a prominence, which is bifid at
the top.

This species occurs in the Southern States, and its range
extends far south of our border. It is the Epeira injumata of
Hentz.

Genus A RAN E A (A-ran'e-a)

The cephalothorax is moderately arched and is without horny
outgrowths. The median furrow of the thorax of the female is
transverse, straight or recurved, and prolonged at each end by a
stria, which extends backward and outward (Fig. 482); these three
lines bound in front a smooth area,
which is covered by the overlapping
abdomen; this area is sometimes
marked by a median longitudinal
furrow; in a few cases the median
furrow is a circular pit. In the male,
of all of the species examined by me,
the median furrow of the thorax is
a pit with prolongations extending
forward, backward, and to each side.
The patella of the pedipalp of the

male is armed with two spines at CEphalotho^2*of aranea
its apex. The anterior and posterior

median eyes are slightly unequal in size; the median ocular area
is not much longer than wide. The lateral eyes of each side are
contiguous or nearly so and widely removed from the median
eyes. The clypeus is narrower than the median ocular area.

The genus Aranea is a very large one, in the United States
alone nearly fifty species belonging to it have already been
described.*

This genus has been commonly known under the name Epci Ira;
this, however, is a much later name than Aranea. which was pro-
posed by Linnasus in his Systema Naturce (Ed. X., p. 619). It had

•B.tnks in his CataloRue lists fifty-seven species, under the name Epetra; twelve of these 3JX l
are placed in other genera in this book. SeeJCaira, Verrucosa, Wixia, Veoscona, Eriopkora, and

£«s/ti/j.

467

Superfamily Argiopoidea

previously been named Araneus by Clerk; but this form of the
name was published one year before the date adopted for the be-
ginning of the binomial nomenclature.

Although a large number of species occur in our fauna, the
few described below include those that most commonly attract
attention. To facilitate reference to the descriptions of these
they are grouped under the following heads:

The Large Angulate Araneas. P. 468.

The Smaller An gulate Araneas. P. 472.

The Large Round-shouldered Araneas. P. 474.

The Three House Araneas. P. 484.

The Smaller Round-shouldered Araneas. P. 490.

THE LARGE ANGULATE ARANEAS

There is a group of species of Aranea in which the abdomen
bears a pair of prominent humps near its base; this group has
been designated The Angulate Araneas. The species composing
this group can be easily separated into two subgroups, one con-
taining the species of large size; the other, those of moderate
or small size.

Of the large angulate Araneas there are four species found in
the United States that are sufficiently common to merit mention
here. The adult females of these species usually measure one
half inch or more in length, and some individuals are nearly one
inch in length.

Each of these species exhibits great variations in size, colour,
and markings. A careful study of the published descriptions
and of a fairly large series of specimens has convinced me that
comparatively little use can be made of colours and markings in
separating these species; but the females can be easily separated
by the form of the epigynum; and it is probable that the males
can be separated by the structure of the palpi and the shape and
armature of the second legs.

1 have not sufficient material to enable me to prepare a table
for separating the males of these species; the females can be
separated as follows:

A. Scape of the epigynum triangular, as wide at the base as
long. P. 472. A. gemma

468

Cuperfamily Argiopoidea

AA. Scape of the epigynum longer than its width at the

base.

B. Scape of the epigynum less than twice as long as its width

at the base. P. 470. A. cavatica

BB. Scape of the epigynum more than twice as long as its

width at the base.

C. Each lateral half of the atriolum more or less distinctly

divided by a furrow; scape long, usually narrow at the

base, sometimes slightly widened, but not tapered

evenly to the tip. P. 460. A. angulata

CC. Lateral halves of the atriolum not subdivided; scape

widest at the base and usually tapered evenly to the

tip. P. 470. A. nordmanni

Aranea angulata (A. an-gu-la'ta).— This is an exceedingly
variable species which is commonly believed to occur both in
Europe and in North America.
On both sides of the Atlantic
several of the varieties of what
is regarded as this species have
received distinct specific names.
It is one of the larger of the
four species mentioned here; it
lives among trees; and is usually
dark coloured like bark. In what
may be considered the more
typical form (Fig. 483), there is
a yellow spot or group of spots
on the middle line of the ab-
domen between or in front of the
shoulder humps; and on the hind
half of the abdomen there is a
distinct folium bordered by a
fairly even, undulating dark line.
The yellow marks between or
in front of the humps vary greatly in shape and maj be wanting.

In many individuals the dark line bordering the folium is
broken into several pairs of very dark, oblique bare; as is the case
in the more common form of A. nordmanni (Fig. 484).

This species is distinguished by the narrower and longer scape

469

Fig. 483.

\k \\l \ Wi.l LATA, I l M \\.\

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of the epigynum and by the fact that each lateral half of the
atriolum is divided by a furrow (Fig. 483 bis).

The male resembles the female in colour and markings, but
is only half as large.

This species often builds its web very high in trees.

In case our form proves to be specifically distinct from that
found in Europe, it will be known as A. silvatica, the name given
to it by Emerton in 1884.

Aranea nordmanni (A. nord-man'ni). — This is a smaller
species than A. angulata; but the two cannot be separated by
size; as some individuals of A. nordmanni are as large as the
smaller individuals of A. angulata. A. nordmanni rarely exceeds
three fifths inch in length. The same variations in colour and
markings are found here as in the preceding species; but in A.
nordmanni the more common type is that in which the dark line
bordering the folium is broken into several pairs of very dark
oblique bars (Fig. 484).

In many individuals, the folium, which covers only the hind
half of the abdomen, is solid black, and is bordered by a light
yellow line (Fig. 485). This variety is represented by both
sexes. 1 have not observed a similar variation in either of
the other species. Figure 485 bis represents an intermediate
variety.

The female of this species can be recognized by the form of
the epigynum; the scape is not so long as in A. angulata; it is
widest at the base and is usually tapered evenly to the tip (Fig.
486) ; the lateral halves of the atriolum are not divided.

This, like the preceding, is an introduced species; it is widely
distributed in the Atlantic region;

Aranea cavatica (A. ca-vat'i-ca). — This spider is dirty white
in colour with grayish markings. The abdomen is clothed with
numerous whitish or gray hairs, which give it in life a grayish
appearance; this is not so marked in alcoholic specimens. The
folium is often distinct (Fig. 487); but is usually not so well-
marked as in the two preceding species, and is sometimes indis-
tinct. On the ventral side of the abdomen there is a broad black
band extending from the epigastric furrow to the spinnerets; the
basal half of this band is bordered by two curved yellow lines;
and near the middle of its length there is a pair of yellow spots
(Fig. 488).

470

Fig. 483 bis. EPIGYNUM
OF ARANEA ANGULATA

l 1-
ARANEA NORDMANNI, FEMALE

Fig. »8s.
ARANEA NORDMANNI, VARIETY

I • 185 bis.
IRANEA NORDM \\\1, VAKII 1 S

47'

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Although the scape of the epigynum (Fig. 489) is elongate, it
is less than twice as long as its width at the base.

The males before me are remarkable for their size, being
about as large as the females.

This species, as its specific name indicates, prefers shady
situations. Emerton states that it lives in great numbers about
houses and barns in northern New England. 1 have found it in a
tunnel at Ithaca, and on the sides of cliffs in a ravine. Its webs
are sometimes very large.

This is the Epeira cinerea of Emerton.

Aranea gemma (A. gem'ma). — This is a very large species
which is widely distributed in the western half of the United
States. The larger specimens that 1 have examined measure
four fifths inch in length and two thirds inch in width. The
spider varies greatly in colour; usually the ground colour is yellow
with brown or darkish markings. Among some specimens which
1 collected in California one was almost entirely white, the others
were yellowish marked with dark gray. In some the folium is
distinct on the hind half of the abdomen; in others it is wanting.
The humps on the abdomen are very prominent. On the ventral
side of the abdomen, there is a brown band extending from the
epigynum to the spinnerets; this band is bordered on each side
by a more or less broken yellow stripe. The most distinctive
feature is the form of the epigynum, which is small for so large
a spider; the scape is short, triangular, as broad at the base as
long, and ends in a spoon-shaped tip (Fig. 490).

I have not seen the male. McGook states that it is small
compared with the female, measuring only one third inch in
length.

THE SMALLER ANGULATE ARANEAS

Among the species of Aranea that are characterized by the
presence of a pair of humps near the base of the abdomen, there
are some that are distinguished from those described above by their
smaller size, the adult females usually measuring less than one
third inch in length. The more common species of this group are
the two following:

Aranea corticaria (A. cor-ti-ca'ri-a).— This is the larger of the
two common species of the smaller angulate Araneas, the adult
female measuring nearly one third inch in length. The abdomen

472

Fig. 486. EPIGYNUM OF
ARAXEA NORDMANNI

Fig. 487.
ARAXEA CAVATICA, FEMALE

Fig. 488.
ARAXEA CAVATICA, VENTER

V- r ,.

Fig. 489. EPIGYNUM
OF ARANEA CAVATICA

Fig. 4Q0. EPIGYNUM
0] VRANEA GEMMA

473

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of the female is about as broad as long; the colour varies from
yellowish brown to dark brown, with light markings, on the front
part that are often bright red or yellow. The epigynum (Fig. 491 )
bears a scape of moderate length; and has each lateral half of the
atriolum deeply divided by a furrow which nearly cuts it in two.

This is a northern species whose range extends over New
England and the Northern Middle States.

Aranea miniata (A. min-i-a'ta). — This species is smaller than
the preceding; the adult female measuring less than one fifth
inch in length, and the male, „—-„,
about one eighth inch. The ab-
domen of the female is wider

Fig. 492. ARANEA MINIATA

Fig. 491.
EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA CORTICARIA

than long (Fig. 492), with distinct
shoulder humps; the colour varies
from white with reticulated
markings to grayish yellow. In some individuals there is an
indistinct folium and a light transverse band between the shoulder
humps. On the hind half of the abdomen there are often four
pairs of brown spots; but these vary greatly in distinctness and
may be wanting.

The male resembles the female in colour but the body is more
slender.

This is a southern species whose range extends north to New
Jersey. It is the Epeira scutulata of Hentz.

THE LARGE ROUND-SHOULDERED ARANEAS

There are two common species of Aranea that rival in size
the large angulate members of this genus described above; these

474

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are A. gigas and A. trifolium. The full-grown females measure
from one half to three quarters of an inch in length; but they
are easily distinguished from the large angulate species of Aranea
by the absence of shoulder-humps on the abdomen.

Each of these two species varies greatly in colour and in
markings; and as certain varieties of the two species present
the same type of markings, it is necessary to make use of structural
characteristics in separating them; this can be done as follows:

A. Each lateral half of the epigynum of the female divided by a
prominent oblique furrow; ventral side of the abdomen
black in the middle with a semicircular yellow spot on
each side; the tibia of the second legs of the male thickened
and armed with many, short, thick spines. P. 475.

A. gigas
AA. The lateral halves of the epigynum not divided by a furrow ;
ventral surface of the abdomen usually lacking the semi-
circular yellow spots; the tibia of the second legs of the
male not thickened. P. 479. A. trifolium

Aranea gigas (A. gi'gas). — This is an exceedingly variable
species in size, colour, and markings. The full-grown female
measures from one half to three quarters of an inch in length.
The cephalothorax is dull yellow with slightly darker lines in
the middle and at the sides. The upper surface of the abdomen
varies in colour from light yellow with dark purplish brown mark-
ings, through a light grayish brown with markings indistinct, to
chocolate brown or dark gray with prominent light markings.

In most cases this species is readily distinguished from the
following by the markings of the ventral side of the abdomen,
which bears a broad black band in the middle with a semicircular,
yellow spot on each side. In this respect this species closely
resembles A. cavatica (Fig. 488) and many others; but as a rule
A. trifolium lacks the yellow spots except in the young.

In what must be considered the typical form of this species,
being that which was first described, the dark spots are gray or
brown with a purplish tint and the light parts are white or yellow;
in this form there is comparatively little of the lighter colour,
except an irregular spot on each front angle of the abdomen, a
broken median line, and a faint outline of the folium (Fig. 493).

475

Superfamily Argiopoidea

In a very common variety of this species, which has been
named the spectacled spider, Aranea gigas conspicellata, the
abdomen is marked as shown in Fig. 494. There is a brown
folium, enclosing a central yellow band or a series of yellow spots;
the folium is outlined on each side by a wavy yellow stripe; on
each side of the abdomen there are several bright yellow, oblique
bars, enclosed more or
less completely by darker
bands in which there are
many small yellow spots.

Fig. 494. ARANEA GIGAS CONSPICELLATA

Fig. 403- ARANEA GIGAS

A third variety is
light, grayish brown,
lighter on the dorsum,
where the muscle impres-
sions are very distinct, and
there are darker gray oblique lines on the sides of the abdomen.

The form of the epigynum varies somewhat; but the same
variations in form occur in the different varieties of the species
described above. The most distinctive' features are the division
of each lateral half of the atriolum by deep oblique furrows (Fig.
495), and the greater length of the scape than is the case in the
following species. In some individuals the scape tapers gradually
from base to tip; in others, it is stout throughout the basal two
thirds of its length, then suddenly narrowed, and finally slightly
enlarged at the tip.

476

•

Fig. 495. EPIGYNUM OF ARAXEA GIGAS

Fig. 496. TIBIA OF SECOND LEG OF ARANEA GIGAS

leg.— |

m.a.--

p. c. -

Fig. 497- TARSI S OF MALE OF Fig. 498. TARSUS OF MALE OF ARAN] \

ARANEA GIGAS

GIGAS Willi Nil IU l.li EXPANDED

-477

.Fig. 499- WEB OF ARANEA GIGAS

47!

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The male is much smaller than the female, being about half
as long. The tibia of the second legs is thickened and armed
on the inner side with many, short, thick spines (Fig. 496). The
unexpanded bulb of the palpus is represented by Fig. 497 and the
expanded bulb by Fig. 498; these are described in detail in an
earlier chapter. (See p. 118.)

The web (Fig. 499) is a complete orb; that of the adult is
large, one foot or more in diameter. It is nearly vertical and
is usually built in shrubs or among the low branches of trees;
but 1 have seen it on trees high above the ground. The central
part of the web of this species is shown in Fig. 185 (p. 191);
the hub is meshed, with rather large irregular spaces; the notched
zone includes comparatively few turns; and the free zone is
narrow or not well-marked; it is probably rarely if ever used by

Fig. 500. EGG-SAC OF ARANEA GIGAS

the spider as a means of passage from one side to the other of the
web. The retreat is usually' above the orb and at some distance
back of it. It is frequently made in a curled leaf or in a bunch
of leaves, and is connected with the hub by one or more traplines.
Young spiders make their tent entirely of silk.

In the Northern States the spiders reach maturity in August.
The egg-sacs are made early in the autumn; they consist of a
loose flocculent mass of silk enclosing the ball of eggs (Fig. 500).

This species is the Epeira insularis of Hentz.

The Shamrock Spider, Aranea trifolium (A. tri-fo'li-um). —
The cephalothorax is light with three wide, black stripes. The
abdomen varies in colour from almost white without any markings
to a gray with an olive tinge or to a dark reddish brown with a
purplish tinge. The markings of the abdomen are as variable
as is the ground colour. Figure 501 represents a common form.

4?>

Superfamily Argiopoidea

In this form there is on the middle line at the base of the abdomen
a three-lobed spot resembling, somewhat, a shamrock leaf; in front
of each of the four muscle impressions there is a white spot, and
there is a third pair of spots farther back and in line with these.
On the middle line of the abdomen there may be a row of spots;
these are sometimes represented by minute dots, or may be want-
ing. In addition to these markings there may be a variable
number of spots about the margins of the dorsal surface of the

Fig. soi. ARANEA TRIFOLIUM, FEMALE

abdomen. As a rule the folium is not outlined except in young
individuals; sometimes, however, it is well-marked (Fig. 502);
this form resembles the spectacled variety of the preceding species;
but it can be distinguished by the markings of the lower surface
of the abdomen, and, more surely, by the form of the epigynum.

The ventral surface of the abdomen is darker than the dorsal
and usually lacks the semicircular yellow spots so prominent in
A. gigas and in certain other species.

The epigynum (Fig. 503) differs markedly in form from that

480

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of the preceding species; the lateral halves of the atriolum are not
divided by furrows, and the scape is comparatively short.

The male (Fig. 504) is much smaller than the female, measur-
ing about one fifth inch in length, and its markings are less dis-
tinct. The tibiae of the second legs are not thickened as in A. gigas.

Fig. 503.
EPIGYNUM OF ARA.NEA TRIFOLIUM

Fig. 502.
ARANEA TRIFOLIUM, FEMALE

Fig. 504-
ARANEA TRIFOLIUM, MALE

Fig. 505.
ARANEA'TRIIOI.U M CANDICANS

The three-lobed figure which suggested the common name
of this species is not distinctively characterise ; for a similar
mark is often borne by individuals of the preceding species.

There is a remarkable female variety of this species, Aranca

481

Fig. 506. WEB OF ARANEA TRIFOLIUM, CENTRAL PART, NATURAL SIZE

48?

Fig. 507. VVEli OF ARANEA TKIIOLIUM, REDUCED

483

Superfamily Arglopoidea

trifolium candicans, which was first described by McCook. In this
variety (Fig. 505) the general appearance is strikingly different
from that of the typical form, resembling the male in colour and
in the shape of the abdomen, but it is much larger than the male.
The specimen figured here measures one half inch in length. I
collected it near Ithaca, N. Y.

Although A. trifolium often builds its web in shrubs, I have
found it most abundant on rank herbaceous growth in marshy

places. The web is a
large, complete orb. The
hub of the web is of the
meshed type, but it is
very open (Fig. 506);
there are only a few
turns in the notched
zone; and the free zone
is not very wide or is
wanting. A trapline
leads from the hub to a
retreat, which is usually
in a folded leaf or a
bunch of leaves above
and at one side of the
orb (Fig. 507). The
spider waits in its re-
treat fortheensnarement
of its prey.

1 have not found
the egg-sac of this spe-
cies in the field; but
a confined spider made
one which was a very
delicate sac attached to
a leaf and was so translucent that the contained mass of eggs
could be seen through its walls (Fig. 508).

THE THREE HOUSE ARANEAS

Fig. 508. EGG-SAC OF ARANEA TRIFOLIUM

Among the round-shouldered Araneas there are three common
species that are intermediate in size between the two large species

484

Superfamily Argiopoidea

described above and the smaller ones treated later. As these
three species are more commonly found about houses, barns, and
fences than are other orb-weavers, they were grouped together
by Emerton as The Three
House Epeiras; this is a
convenient grouping which
I adopt with merely the
necessary change in the
generic name. It should be
remembered, however, that
although these are termed
house- spiders they fre-
quently build their webs
on bushes far from build-
ings.

The three house
Araneas resemble each
other in a striking degree
in size and in markings.
The adult females vary
from a little less than one
third inch to three fifths Fig. soq. aranea frondosa, female
inch in length; and the

males are somewhat smaller. The colours are various shades
of brown; and there is a distinct folium (Fig. 509).

Notwithstanding the close resemblance of these three species,
they can be easily separated in the adult state by the differences
in the form of the epigyna of the females and of the palpi of the
males, as indicated in the following table:

A. Females.

I). Scape of the epigynum finger-like.

C. Openings of the spermathecae exposed; the posterior

lateral thickenings of the epigynum nearly or quite

meeting on the middle line. P. 486. Aranea sericata

CC. With a prominent lobe on each anterior lateral part of

the epigynum; the posterior lateral thickenings of the

epigynum widely separated; the posterior half of the

central portion of the epigynum prominently elevated.

P. 487. Aranea frondosa

485

Superfamily Argiopoidea

BB. Scape of the epigynum flat and widened at the tip. P. 489.

Aranea ocellaia
AA. Males.

B. The median apophysis of the bulb of the palpus more than

twice as long as wide and split less than halfway to its

base.

C. The bulb of the palpus with a long blunt terminal

apophysis. P. 486. Aranea sericata

CC. The terminal apophysis of the bulb of the palpus

stouter at the base but ending in a slender spear-like

tip. P. 487. Aranea J rondos a

BB. The median apophysis of the bulb of the palpus nearly

as wide as long and split nearly to its base. P. 489.

Aranea ocellaia

The Gray Cross Spider, Aranea sericata (A. ser-i-ca'ta). —
This is the most easily recognized of the three house Araneas. It

is darker than the other two spe-
cies and has lighter abdominal
markings (Fig. 510). The most
easily recognized distinction is

Fig. 510.
ARANEA SERICATA, FEMALE

Fig. 511.
EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA SERICATA

the fact that the light lines form-
ing the edges of the folium are
broken between the first and
second abdominal segments; and
eachpart extends inward, more or less distinctly, toward the
middle line. At the place where the lines are broken, the folium
is crossed by a lighter gray patch, interrupted in the middle. The

486

Superfamily Argiopoidea

adult female measures from two fifths to three fifths inch in
length; and has a finger-like scape, which is slender and tapers
toward the tip (Fig. 511).

The male measures a little less than one third inch in length,
and resembles the female in the markings of the abdomen, al-
though the transverse gray patch is usually not as distinct as
in the female. The distinctive characteristics of the palpi
(Fig. 512) are indicated in the table given above.

This is the most common species of Aranea about buildings
and other wooden structures; and it is sometimes exceedingly

con

titim

Fig. SI3-
EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA FRONDOSA

OF abundant on buildings that are
aranea sericata near water. It is rarely found on

ma, median apophysis ta, terminal • r ,

apophysis con. conductor Plants away from houses.

The web is a complete orb of
the same type as that of A. frondosa. The retreat is usually
a dense sheet of silk built across an angle of the supporting
structure. The adults are found at all seasons of the year;
hence individuals collected at any time will vary greatly in size.

This species has been commonly known under the name
Epeira sclopetaria; but according to the accepted rules of nomen-
clature the specific name sericata must be used for it. Both names
were given by Clerk, but the one adopted here appears first
in his book.

The popular name, the gray cross spider, was probably sug-
gested by the transverse gray patch of the abdomen.

The Foliate Spider, Aranea frondosa (A. fron-do'sa).— -The

487

t teg.

•KFVv

-f.

u.» £

. /

tr.

s.teg

-Hft

^Ste-

•/

Fig. 514.
ARANEA FRONDOSA, MALE

Fig. SiS-
PALPUS OF MALE OF ARANEA FRONDOSA
ma, median apophysis to, terminal apophysis

Fig. 516. WEB OF ARANEA FRONDOSA
488

Superfamily Argiopoidea

adult female (Fig. 509) measures about two fifths inch in length.
The cephalothorax is reddish brown with a dark stripe on each
side and a less distinct one in the middle. The abdomen is light
grayish brown, with a darker folium, which includes three or more
pairs of indistinctly outlined spots of the lighter shade. This
species closely resembles the following one; but can be easily
distinguished from it by the form of the scape of the epigynum,
which is finger-like (Fig. 513).

The male (Fig. 514) closely resembles the female and is but
little smaller. The median apophysis of the bulb of the palpus
(Fig. 515) is more than twice
as long as wide and is split less
than halfway to its base; and the
terminal apophysis of the bulb
(Fig. 5 1 5) ends in a slender spear-
like tip. The tibia of the second

Fig. 517- EPIGYNUM OF
ARANEA OCELLATA

Fig. 518. PALPUS OF MALE
OF ARANEA OCELLATA

legs is armed with two rows of short stout spines on the inside;
these spines differing more markedly from those on the other
legs than is the case in either of the other house Araneas.

This is an exceedingly common species, which makes its web
about houses, but more frequently on bushes. The spider is
usually found in a retreat near the web. Figure 516 is of a web
of this species; the spider that made this web had a retreat at
the base of the teazle head at the left. Figure 186, p. 194, and
Fig. 194, p. 205, represent other webs of this species.

This species is the Epeira sirix of Hentz and the Epeira
foliata of Koch.

The popular name doubtless refers to the conspicuous folium.

Aranea ocellata (A. o-cel-la'ta).— This species resembles

489

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the foliate spider quite closely in appearance; but it can be readily
distinguished from it by the form of the epigynum and the form
of the bulb of the palpus of the male. The scape of the epigynum
is flat and widened at the tip (Fig. 517), and the apophysis of the
bulb of the palpus of the male is nearly as wide as long and is
split nearly to its base (Fig. 518, m. a).

I have found this species much less common than either of
the other house Araneas.

This is the Epeira patigiata of many authors.

THE SMALLER ROUND-SHOULDERED ARANEAS

Under this head are grouped those species of Aranea that are
neither angulate nor of large size. This group includes a larger
number of species than either of the preceding groups; but we
have space to describe only the more common ones.

The Lattice-spider, Aranea thaddeus (A. thad'de-us). — The
full-grown female spider (Fig. 519) is about one fourth inch long,
with a wide round abdomen, which is usually white or light yellow
on the upper side, but which varies to the most brilliant purple
and pink. There is a dark stripe or a row of dark spots on each
side of the abdomen, and a large dark area on the ventral side
surrounding a light spot just back of the epigynum. The cephalo-
thorax and legs vary from yellow to orange-yellow and to yel-
lowish brown. The form of the epigynum is shown by Fig.
520. The male is rarely observed; it resembles the female in
colour. This species has been found throughout the eastern half
of the United States

Like some Oriental ladies this beautiful spider spends the
day peering out from behind a lattice, and a wonderfully beautiful
lattice it is! It is built on the lower side of a leaf which has been
bent and fastened so as to form a tent; sometimes the tent is
formed of two or more leaves fastened together. From the apex
of this tent a silken tube hangs down. The wall of this tube is
not a continuous sheet but is perforated with many openings,
which make it appear like lattice-work (Fig. 521). The tube is
cylindrical, and in case of the larger specimens one inch or more
in length and one half inch in diameter.

Below and slightly in front of this retreat is suspended the
orb. This is usually oblong, the vertical diameter being con-

490

Superfamily Argiopoidea

siderably greater than the horizontal, though sometimes it is
nearly circular, as is the one shown in Fig. 522. In the more typical
specimens about three fifths of the orb is below the centre of the
hub. The hub is meshed; and from the upper edge of it, one or

two traplines lead to the lattice-
like retreat. There is a more
or less distinct free zone. In
the webs of full-grown spiders
the number of turns of the
viscid threads varies from ten to

. . 1 m

Fig. 519-
ARANEA THADDEUS

Fig. 520-
EPIGYNUM OF ARANEA THADDEUS

Fig 521. RETREAT OF ARANEA THADDEUS

twenty-five above the hub and from forty to eighty below.
Usually the turns are much closer together below the hub than
above.

Sometimes this spider builds an orb of the zilla type, the

491

Fig. 522. WEB OF ARANEA THADDEUS, ORDINARY TYPE, REDUCED

492

Fig. 523. WEB OF ARANEA IHADDEIS, ZILLA TYPE

493

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Fig. 524-
ARANEA DISPLICATA, FEMALE

viscid thread being omitted from one sector of it. Such a web is
shown in Fig. 523.

I have found the webs of the lattice-spider most abundant
in dense foliage, as in an osage orange hedge, and among the

leaves of an ivy on the side of a
building. McCook states that this
spider may be often found nes-
tled in the angle of a door or window,
or other like situations, on the out-
houses of farms and rural buildings.
Aranea displicata (A. dis-pli-
ca'ta). — This is a small species,
the larger individuals being only
about one quarter inch in length.
The cephalothorax and legs are
brownish yellow without markings;
the abdomen is oval, and is brightly
coloured with light yellow or with crimson; on the hind half
there are three small black spots on each side. These black
spots make it easy to
recognize this spider (Fig.
524). In the male the
black spots on the abdo-
men are larger.

The web is a small
one and is usually made
among the leavesof shrubs
or trees. It is often made
in the space enclosed by
the bending of a single
leaf. The specimen rep-
resented in Fig. 525 was
made between the lobes
of an oak leaf.

Aranea pegnia (A.
peg'ni-a). — The adult fe-
male measures about one
fourth inch in length. The abdomen is globose, being nearly
as wide as long. The cephalothorax is yellow, with a very
narrow dark line extending from the eyes to the median furrow

Fig. 525. WEB OF ARANEA DISPLICATA

494

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and indistinct dark marks on the sides of the head. The general
colour of the abdomen is light brownish yellow with a distinct
folium. The basal part of the folium is occupied by two pairs
of large, white, yellow, or pink spots (Fig. 526) behind these there
is a series of pairs of transverse
black barsextending nearly to the
tip of the abdomen.

The male measures one fifth
inch in length. It resembles
the female in the markings of the
abdomen; but the abdomen is
small and more elongate than
in the female. The tibia of the
second legs is armed with strong
spines above.

The web of this species is de-
scribed by Emerton ('02). It is of
a composite type, being an orb-
web combined with an irregular
net resembling somewhat the
web of Metepeira labyrinthea
(Fig. 478). The orb is incom-
plete, a segment back of the trapline having few or no turns
of the viscid spiral. The retreat to which the trapline extends
is a large silken tent; and between the retreat and the orb there
is an irregular net.

This is the Epeira globosa of Keyserling and the Epeira
triaranea of McCook.

Genus NEOSCONA (Ne-os-co'na)

This genus includes a group of species which is commonly
included in Aranea, but which is sharply distinguished from that
genus. In Neoscona the median furrow of the thorax of the
female is longitudinal; and the epigynum is of a very characteristic
form, which varies only in details in the different species. There
is a circular or elongate atriolum, without depressions, to the hind
margin of which is fused a strongly chitinized, more or less elon-
gate, spoon-shaped scape (Fig. 527). The males can be recognized
as a rule by the resemblance of the markings of the abdomen
to those of the female.

Fig. 526. ARANEA PEGNIA, FEMALE

495

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Although there is a great variation in the colour and markings
within the limits of each of the species, there is a characteristic
pattern which with modification of details is evident in all of our
species (Fig. 528). On the base of the abdomen, in front of the
first pair of muscle impressions, there is an irregular, triangular,
white patch pointed forward;
there is a similar patch in the
space between the first and the
second pairs of muscle impres-
sions; and behind this is a nar-

Fig. 527-
EPIGYNUM OF NEOSCONA ARABESCA

Fig. 528.
NEOSCONA ARABESCA

rower band, extending to the tip of the abdomen; sometimes
this band is broken into a series of spots; on each side of this
band there is a series of four or five conspicuous, black, oblique,
oval spots, each of which is usually partly surrounded by
a light patch. The widest departure from this type of markings
is exhibited by N. pratensis, which is figured later.

As to the ventral markings, there is usually a yellow stripe
on the sternum; and the centre of the ventral aspect of the ab-
domen is brown, with a yellow stripe or a row of yellow spots
on each side.

The females of the species described below, which are ail
that 1 know to occur in our fauna, can be separated by the fol-
lowing table:

A. Femora of the first three pairs of legs with a double series

of spines beneath. P. 502.

496

N. oaxacensis

Superfamily Argiopoidea

AA. Femora of the legs almost entirely devoid of spines beneath.

B. Abdomen triangular-oval, broad anteriorly.

C. Epigynum short, not much longer than its width at the

base. P. 500. N. vulgaris

CC. Epigynum elongate. P. 498. N. benjamina

BB. Abdomen uniformly oval.

C. Dorsal surface of the abdomen with a dark band in the

middle bordered on each side with a yellow stripe

or a series of yellow spots. P. 502. N. pratensis

CC. Dorsal surface of the abdomen with a yellow band in

the middle or a series of yellow spots. P. 497.

N. arabesca
The male of N. volucripes is unknown to me; the males of our
other species can be separated by the following table:
A. Coxa of the fourth leg with a coniform spur beneath.
B. Abdomen with a brown median band. P. 502.

N. pratensis
BB. Abdomen with a yellow median band. P. 502.

N. oaxacensis
AA. Coxa of the fourth leg without a coniform spur beneath.
B. Tibia of the second leg straight or nearly so. P. 498.

hi. benjamina

BB. Tibia of the second leg strongly curved, concave on the

inner side. P. 497. N. arabesca

Neoscona arabesca (N. ar-a-bes'ca). — This and the following
species are the two most common and most widely distributed
members of the genus in the United States occurring throughout
this country and far south of our border. This is the smaller of
the two species, rarely exceeding one third inch in length. It
varies greatly in size, mature individuals occurring that are not
more than half as long as others. It is distinguished from the
following species by its smaller size, the more nearly oval abdomen,
and the form of the epigynum (Fig. 527), which is comparatively
short. It varies greatly in colour and markings. The most com-
mon colour is a mottled brown or brown and red with white or
light yellow markings. What may be considered the typical mark-
ings is indicated in t he generic description above. The basal
triangular light patch is often divided into a pair of oblique spots,
with more or less distinct dark or red margins, and the narrow

497

Superfamily Argiopoidea

band on the hind half of the abdomen is often divided by a central
dark line with paired branches, and frequently this band is re-
placed by a series of more or less distinct spots. The carapace
varies in colour from yellow to orange-yellow or to brown; there
is a central dark band and on each side a sub-
marginal one; these vary greatly in distinctness.

The male is marked like the female. The tibia
of the second legs (Fig. 529) is armed with short
stout spines and is usually strongly curved.

The web (Fig. 530) is a nearly vertical complete
orb, from six to eighteen inches in diameter, built
on low bushes. I have found it most common in
damp situations, as on bushes along the shore of a
lake. The hub of the web (Fig. 531) is nearly an
open one; but the open space is crossed by one or
two lines. Outside of the rim of the hub there is
a notched zone and a wide clear space. The spider
rests at the centre of the web, as a rule, with the
tip of the abdomen pushed through the open space
in the hub. They are found in this situation both
in the daytime and at night. Some individuals
build a retreat and have a trapline leading
from the centre of the web to it.

This species is the Epeira irivittata of Keyserling.
Neoscona benjamina (N. ben-ja-mi'na). — This is larger than
the preceding species, the adult females measuring from two fifths
to three fifths inch in length. The abdomen is ordinarily trian-
gular-oval, being broad at the base (Fig. 532) ; but sometimes when
distended with eggs, it becomes more uniformly oval (Fig. 533).
In colour and markings it resembles N. arabesca very closely and
is nlmost as variable. It can be most surely distinguished by the
form of the epigynum in which the scape is much longer, and
the tubercles at the base of the scape more prominent when seen
from below (Fig. 534).

I have been unable to distinguish in a satisfactory manner
the male of this species from that of N. arabesca. According to
Emerton the tibia of the second legs of the male of N. benjamina
(Fig. 535) is not so strongly curved as it is in N. arabesca; but I
have not found it easy to make use of this distinction.
This is the Epeira domiciliorum of Hentz.

498

Fig. 52g.

TIBIA OF

SECOND LEG

OF NEOSCONA

''ARABESCA

Fig. sao. WEB OF NEOSCONA ARABESCA

499

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Neoscona vulgaris (N. vul-ga'ris). — This species presents
the typical markings of the genus and resembles the preceding
species in the triangular-oval form of the abdomen. But it is
smaller than N. benjamina, the adult females usually measuring

Fig. 531. CENTRE OF WEB OF NEOSCONA ARABESCA

about two fifths inch in length. The most distinctive char-
acteristic is the form of the epigynum (Fig. 536), which is short,
not much longer than its width at the base.

This is a widelv distributed species; but it is not common
in the North.

500

Fig- 532-
NEOSCONA BENJAMINA

Fig. ,v,i EPIGYNUM OF
\ i.OSC ON A BENJ AMINA

Fig. 533,

\i:os( o\ \ in \jA.\iiv\

* ■

Fig. 536.
EPIGVXUM OF NEOSCONA VULGARIS

I i 535.

I IB] \ OF

SE( OND II G

OF NEOSCONA

BENJAMINA

501

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Neoscona oaxacensis (N. o-ax-a-cen'sis). — This is a Pacific
Coast species whose range extends from California to Panama.
The female is one half inch or a little more in length. 1 1 resembles
the three preceding species in being exceedingly variable in colour
and markings, but usually presents the abdominal markings de-
scribed above as characteristic of the genus. It is easily distin-
guished from our other species of this genus by the fact that

the femora of the first three pairs
I of legs are armed with a double
series of spines beneath.

The male usually measures a
little less than one half inch in
length, but varies much in size.
The folium resembles quite closely
that of the female. It agrees with
the following species in having the
coxa of the fourth legs armed with
a coniform spur beneath.

F. O. P. Cambridge states that
the Epeira vertebrata of McCook is
identical with this species; but Mr.
Banks in his catalogue separates
the two.

Neoscona pratensis (N. pra-
ten'sis). — In this species, which
undoubtedly belongs to the genus
Neoscona, we find the widest departure from the typical mark-
ings of the genus (Fig. 537). The adult spiders measure from
one third to two fifths inch in length. The colour of the cara-
pace is yellowish brown with darker median and submarginal
bands. The colour of the abdomen is yellowish brown, which
is lighter on the basal half and darker upon the apical half.
There is a broad median brown band; and on each side of this,
there is a yellow stripe, which is often more or less broken,
especially where it passes over the muscle impressions; and on
"ach side, between the yellow band and the margin of the body,
there is a row of six black spots partly or completely sur-
.ounded with yellow.

The male is marked like the female and is not much
smaller. The tibia of the second legs is curved and armed

Fig. 537- NEOSCONA PRATENSIS

502

Superfamily Argiopoidea

with strong spines. The coxa of the fourth leg has a coniform
spur beneath.

This species is distributed over the greater part of the United
States. It makes its web among herbage and on shrubs.

Genus ERIOPHORA (Er-i-oph'o-ra)

Several species of spiders that are commonly classed in the
rcnus Aranea have been separated from that genus by Pickard-

r.on.

<ym

m.a.

emb.

s/..

p.m. a.

Fig. 538. PALPUS OF MALE
OF ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA

Fig. 539.
ERIOPHORA CIRCULATA, FEMALE

Cambridge and placed in a new genus, for which he has revived
the old name Eriophora, first proposed by Simon, but afterward
discarded by him.

In the species placed here the scape of the epigynum is greatly
elongate, extending nearly or quite to the base of the spinnerets;
and the palpus of the male presents an anomalous appearance
due to the fact that the genital bulb is twisted so that the embolus
appears to arise from its base; the embolus is very long and elbowed
(Fig. 538). Other figures of this palpus are given in an earlier
chapter, where this palpus is described in detail. (Seep. 117.)

Several species of this genus occur in the extreme southern
portions of our territory. The following will serve as an example:

503

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Eriophora circulata (E. cir-cu-la'ta). — The adult spiders
measure from one third to one half inch in length; the male is
nearly or quite as long as the female, but has a smaller abdomen.
The cephalothorax is yellow. The abdomen is subtriangular,
being almost as wide near the base as long; it is rounded before and
obiusely pointed behind (Fig. 539). On the dorsal wall of the
abdomen there is large subtriangular patch, which is yellow in
alcoholic specimens but which is green in life. At the hind end
of this patch there is a round, black tubercle edged with the
light colour; and back of this a second similar tubercle. On
each side of the hind half of the light patch and of the two tubercles
there is a row of four oblique black bars.

This is a subtropical species which is found in the Southern
States and on the Pacific Coast as far north as Oregon. It has
been mistaken for the E. bivariolata of Central America.

Genus MANGORA (Man-go'ra)

The most available character for distinguishing this genus
from our allied genera is the fact that the tibia of the third legs

bears a cluster of slender hairs on
the anterior side near the base
(Fig. 540). The cephalothorax is

Fig. 540. TIBIA OF THE
THIRD LEG OF MANGORA

Fig. 54i-
MANGORA GIBBEROSA, FEMALE

more or less gibbous or convex posteriorly; the median furrow of
the thorax is deep and usually extends forward so as to reach
the cervical groove; the median ocular area is narrower in front

504

Superfamily Argiopoidea

than behind; the posterior median eyes are larger than the
lateral eyes; the anterior row of eyes is recurved, the posterior
row, straight or procurved.

Three well-known species occur in the United States.

Mangora gibberosa (M. gib-be-ro'sa). — The adult female
(Fig. 541) is from one sixth to one quarter of an inch in length,
the male is somewhat smaller. The cephalothorax and legs are
light greenish yellow; the cephalothorax has a narrow black stripe
extending from just behind the eyes back into the median furrow
and the legs are armed with prominent black spine-like hairs. The
abdomen is white, mottled with yellow and striped and spotted
with black. There are three longitudinal stripes on the hind half
of the abdomen; the middle one of these extends farther forward
than the others; and there are several oblique stripes or spots
on each side of the abdomen. The cephalothorax is swollen on
each side of the median furrow; this probably suggested the
specific name. The abdomen extends forward in a rounded point
above the thorax.

This is a very widely distributed species. It is common and
makes its web among the stalks of grass and on low bushes. Its
web is surprisingly large compared with the size of the spider,
the orb varying from six inches to a foot in diameter; but it is
so delicate that it rarely attracts attention, even when the spider
is very common. The abundance of the spider is frequently
made evident first by the appearance of many individuals in the
sweeping net. The web (Fig. 542) is either horizontal or inclined
and although exceedingly delicate it is very elaborate in structure.
The hub is either finely meshed or nearly open, and is surrounded
by a notched zone of many turns. Occasionally the hub bears a
circular or disk-like sheet and the notched zone consists of many
turns of the thread (Fig. 543). The viscid spirals are closely
woven and are very numerous; and the number of the radii is
also large. The web figured was that of an immature male.

1 have most often found the spider resting beneath the hub
of its orb; but in some cases I have found it in a curled leaf above
the web. If disturbed, when resting on its web, it darts to the
ground or runs quickly to a neighbouring leaf. In the North
the spiders mature early in August.

Mangora placida (M. pla'ci-da). The adult is about one
sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax is brownish yellow with

505

506

Superfamily Argiopoidea

a dark median stripe and dark margins. The abdomen bears a
brown stripe which is narrow in front and wide behind (Fig. 544).
On each side of this stripe there is a row of black spots; and in the
wider portion a pair of white spots. There is a considerable
variation in the depth of colour of the brown stripe. The male
resembles the female in colour and markings.

This is a very widely distributed species; and, like M . gibbe-
rosa, it makes a very finely meshed web. The finest meshed web
I have ever seen was made by a spider of this species.

Af angora maculata (M. mac-u-la'ta). — The male measures
one eighth inch in length; the female, nearly one fifth. This

Fig. 543.
HUB OF WEB OF MANGORA GIBBEROSA

Fig. 544. MANGORA PLAC1DA

species can be distinguished from Af. gibberosa by the markings of
the abdomen, which consist of several pairs of black spots on the
hinder half; sometimes these spots are connected by brownish
transverse bands.

Like the two preceding species, this one is widely distributed,
but it is much less common.

Genus LARINIA (La-rin'i-a)

These are elongate spiders, the abdomen, in our species,
being two or three times as long as wide. The abdomen projects
over the cephalothorax in a blunt point; and extends a short

507

Superfamily Argiopoidea

distance behind the spinnerets. The second row of eyes is nearly
straight; the lateral eyes are nearly equal in size and those on
each side are close together; the posterior median eyes are near
together; the anterior median eyes are widely separated, making
the median ocular area twice as wide in front as behind. The
patella of the pedipalp of the male is armed with two spines at
its apex.

Three species occur in the United States.
Larinia directa (L. di-rec'ta). — This is a common species in
the South, where it makes an oblique web in grass or on other

herbaceous plants. The adult male
measures one fifth inch in length;
the adult female, two fifths inch;
and in each sex the body is only
about one fourth as wide as long.
The cephalothorax is yellowish with
a narrow, dark, marginal line and
also a median, longitudinal line.
The abdomen varies greatly in
colour and markings (Fig. 545);
there is usually a yellowish median
stripe above, and often a darker
stripe on each side of this. There
is also, usually, a series of six pairs
of black spots extending the whole
length of the abdomen. The spots
vary greatly in size in different in-
dividuals; and sometimes the spots
of the first and third pairs are much
larger than the others. The ster-
num is yellow. On the under side
of the abdomen there are two parallel dark stripes, which unite
just before the spinnerets. The metatarsus of the first legs is
longer than the tibia and twice as long as the width of the
body.

Larinia borealis (L. bo-re-a'lis). — This species occurs in the
North; but is not common. It was described by Banks from
specimens taken in the State of Washington, and in New Hamp-
shire. It is not as slender as L. directa, the abdomen being only
about twice as long as wide. It differs also in that the metatarsus

Fig. S4S. LARINIA DIRECTA

508

Superfamily ArgicpciJca

of the first legs is not longer than the tibia, and not longer than
the width of the body. 'The abdomen is gray, with black spots
on the sides, above with a pale median stripe, and a row of four
black spots on each side near the tip; venter with three narrow
black stripes, uniting at base of spinnerets."

Larinia famulatoria (L. fam-u-la-to'ri-a). — Only the female
of this species has been described. This was found in Colorado.
It measures a little more than one fifth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is yellow, with a narrow longitudinal black band
extending from the posterior middle eyes to the median furrow;
it is one fourth longer than broad, and only one half so broad in
front as at the middle. The abdomen is about one third longer
than wide; it is bluntly pointed in front and rounded behind.

Genus ACACESIA (Ac-a-ces'i-a)

The median furrow of the thorax is longitudinal and extends
forward so as to reach the cervical groove; the abdomen is an

Fig. 546. EPIGYXUM OF
ACACESIA FOLIATA

elongate rhomboid.
The second row of
eyes is very strong-
ly recurved; the
median ocular area
is not much wider
in front than be-
hind, is nearly vertical, and is con-
vex and hairy; the posterior median eyes are not close together;
the anterior median eyes are farther from the lateral eyes than
the lateral eyes are from each other. The legs are armed with

Fifi. 547-

TIBIA OF

SECOND LEG

OF MALE OF

ACACESIA

FOLIATA

Fig. 548.
ACACESIA FOLIATA, FEMALE

5OQ

Superfamily Argiopoidea

a very few spines. The scape of the epigynum is short and
broad and is directed backward (Fig. 546). The epigynum of
Acacesia closely resembles that of Neoscona, but the scape lacks
the lateral tubercles, and the openings of the spermathecae are
exposed in the atriolum, whereas in Neoscona they are in the
dorsal wall at the base of the scape. The tibia? of the second legs
of the male are somewhat thickened and are strongly spined,
but the spines are not arranged in a series (Fig. 547); the
anterior coxae of the male are furnished with apical teeth.

The following species, though not common, is distributed
over nearly the whole of North America.

Acacesia joliata (A. fol-i-a'ta). — The female is one fourth
inch in length; it is easily recognized by the very distinctive
markings of the abdomen (Fig. 548); the male is a little smaller
but resembles the female in colour and markings.

Genus EUSTALA (Eu'sta-la)

This genus resembles Acacesia in the arrangement of the eyes;
but differs in that the legs are armed with many spines. The

Fig. 549-

EPIGYNUM Of

EUSTALA

ANASTERA

Fig. s So.

TIBIA OF SECOND LEG

OF MALE OF EUSTALA

ANASTERA

Fig. 55 1-
EUSTALA ANASTERA

scape of the epigynum is directed forward (Fig. 549); and in the
male the spines on the inner side of the tibia of the second legs

510

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are arranged in a more or less definite series (Fig. 550). The
abdomen is triangular in outline.

The following is our best-known representative of the genus;
a second species, E.fuscovittata, has been found in Florida.

Eustala anasiera (E. a-nas'te-ra). — This is a common species
throughout the United States and southward. The female meas-

I i • ;s - EUSTALA ANASTERA

Fig. 553. ABDOMEN OF EUSTAI. A ANASTERA

ures from one fourth to threeeighths of an inch in length. The
abdomen is wide in front, bluntly pointed behind (Fig. S5i). and
about as high behind as in front (Fig. 552); in some individuals
the pointed end of the abdomen is turned a little upward, resem-
bling a Cyclosa. The markings of the abdomen are exceedingly
variable; in Fig. 5 s 3 are represented several varieties, which

Si 1

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are only a small part of those before me. The species is best
recognized by the form of the epigynum (Fig. 554).

The forward projecting scape of the epigy-
num is wedge-shaped, broad at the base and
gradually narrowed to a point, which is curved
toward the body; it bears many transverse
wrinkles; at the base there is a black horse-
shoe-shaped sclerite, which varies somewhat in
form.

The colours of this species are frequently
exceedingly protective; the spider closely resem-
bling the bark of the tree or other plant on
which it rests; and they act as if conscious
Fig 5S4 of this protection, running only a short dis-

epigynum of tance when disturbed and then crouching down
anastera close to the bark. The webs are made in low

bushes and are vertical.
This is the Epeira prompta of Hentz and the Epeira
parvula of Keyserling.

Subfamily GASTERACANTHIN^E ( Gas-ter-a-can-thi'nae)

The Spiny-bellied Spiders

The striking appearance of most of the members of this
subfamily render them easily recognized, the abdomen being
armed with prominent spines. Another very striking feature,
and one that is distinctly characteristic, is that the spinnerets
are elevated on a very large projection and occupy a circular
space limited by a thick flange in the form of a tube or ring (Fig.
555). Only two genera are represented in our fauna; these can
be separated as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE GASTERACANTHIN^E

A. Cephalothorax of the female at least as wide as long. P. 512.

Gasteracantha
AA. Cephalothorax longer than wide. P. 514. Micrathena

Genus GASTERACANTHA (Gas-ter-a-can'tha)

This genus differs from the closely allied Micrathena in
the form of the thorax, which is at least as wide as long in the

512

Superfamily Argiopoidea

female. The very characteristic form of the species make them
the most easily recognized of all of our spiders.

Three species are listed as occurring in the United States;
but the following is our only common one; the others are found
in the extreme South or Southwest.

Gasteracantha cancrijormis (G. can-cri-for'mis). — This is a
spider whose remarkable shape and conspicuous, strongly con-
trasting colours are sure to attract attention. The adult female
(Fig. 556) measures about one third inch in length and is about
as wide as long. The abdomen is leathery and is armed with a

fringe of spinose processes. The ground
colour is yellow, marked with black
spots, which vary in number and shape.
This is a southern species, which is

Fig. 555.
MICRATHENA GRACILIS
SHOWING THE PROJEC-
TION, ON THE LOWER
SIDE OF THE ABDOMEN,
1 HAT BEARS THE SPIN-
NERETS

Fig. 556.
GASTERACANTHA 1 ANCRIFORMIS, FEMALE

found in the Gulf Slates, where it is
common in the more southern portions.
The web is built between the
branches of shrubs and trees, and fre-
quently in the tops of tall trees. It is a complete orb, and is
either vertical or inclined; the hub is open; the notched zone
is narrow; the free zone is wide; and there are many viscid
spirals. There is no retreat, the spider resting on the hub with
its body over the open space. I have never observed a stabili-
mentum in a web of this species.

A remarkable feature of the webs of this species is the fre-
quent occurrence in them of series of flocculenl tufts of silk at-
tached to either the radii or to some of the foundation lines (Fig*
557). These tufts are composed of a mass of fine threads, like
those of which a stabilimentum is made. I he only suggestion
that 1 can make as to the ii^e of these tufts is that they may

513

Superfamily Argiopoidea

serve as lures for the attraction of midge-eating insects, which
in their efforts to capture the supposed midges fly into the orb.
This method of decorating the web has been observed also
with certain exotic members of this genus.

Genus MICRATHENA (Mi-cra-the'na)

Our representatives of this genus are of moderate size and
are brightly coloured. The cephalothorax is longer than wide;
the dorsal aspect of the abdomen is flattened and, with adult
females, it bears on its margin several pairs of spines, varying
in size and shape. The males resemble the young females in
form and colour.

This is the genus Acrosoma of most American writers on
spiders; but it is believed that Micrathena is the older name.
The genus is represented in this country by four species.

Micrathena sagitiata (M. sag-it-ta'ta).— The arrow-shaped
Micrathena is easily recognized by the striking form of the ab-
domen, which is narrow in front and is terminated behind by two
large spreading spines (Fig. 558). The abdomen bears also two
other pairs of spines, one near the base, and the other between
these and the large caudal spines. The cephalothorax is yellowish
brown with white edges. The abdomen is white or bright yellow
above spotted with black. The spines are black at the tip and
bright red at base. The ventral aspect of the abdomen is darker
than the dorsal and is marked with black bands and yellow spots.
The adult female measures a little more than one fourth inch
in length.

The male (Fig. 559) is about one sixth inch in length. The
abdomen is a little widened behind and bears slight humps in
the place of the spines of the female.

This species is the Epeira spinea of Hentz. It is very common
in the South; and Emerton reports it as common in Massachu-
setts and Connecticut.

The web is made on low bushes and is a very symmetrical,
inclined orb, with many radii, and closely placed spirals; that of the
adult is about one foot in diameter. The hub is open; there is no
free zone, the spiral guy-line being left in the space between the
hub and the viscid spiral. Figure 560 represents the central
portion of an orb natural size. There is no retreat, the spider

5'4

Fig. 557. WEB OF GASTERACANTHA CANCRIFORMIS

Fig. ss8.

MICRATI IV. X A SAG ITTATA,

FEMALE

Fig. SS9-

MICRATHEXA SAGITTATA,

MALE

515

Superfamily Argiopoides

resting in the open space of the hub in the attitude shown in
Fig. 561 . A small stabilimentum is usually present above the hub.
Micrathena gracilis (M. grac'i-lis). — The abdomen of this
species is armed with five pairs of spines; the first is near the base;
the second, nearly midway the length of the abdomen; and the
other three pairs at the caudal end. When viewed from above,

Fig. 560. WEB OF MICRATHENA SAGITTATA

the third pair of spines covers more or less completely the fourth
and fifth (Fig. 562). The full-grown female measures a little
more than one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax is
reddish brown with three dark stripes. The abdomen is spotted
with white, yellow and brown; the general colour varies from
almost white to nearly black.

516

Superfamily Argicpoidea

I have not seen the male. It is said to have a long narrow
abdomen without any humps or spines.

This is a widely distributed species.

Micrathena reduviana (M. re-du-vi-a'na). — This is a smaller
species than either of the two preceding, the adult female measur-

Fig. 561. WEB OF MICRATHENA SAGnTATA, SHOWING THE
POSITION OF THE SPIDER WHEN AT REST

ing from one sixth to one fifth inch in length; and the spines on
the abdomen are much less prominent than on either of them.
The cephalothorax is brownish yellow. The abdomen overlaps
the hind half of the cephalothorax, and has two pairs of com-
paratively small spines at the caudal end, the second pair of which
are concealed by the first when the spider is viewed from above
(Fig. 563). It is white or yellow above; with a dark spot near
the base, and another at the hint! end.

This species is widely distributed in the Eastern States. It
is the Epeira mitrata of Hentz.

Micrathena maculata (M. ma-cu-la'ta). — This species, which
has been found in Arizona is closely allied to the preceding.
The female measures a little more than one fifth inch in length.
The cephalothorax is uniform dark brown, about twice as long
as broad, broadest in the middle, about as broad in front as

51/

Superfamily Argiopoidea

behind, and with a depressed furrow slightly before the middle.
The abdomen is about twice as long as broad; the sides are slightly
convex, but hardly twice as broad in the middle as at the base;
at the basal third above there is a small conical hump or spine

Fig. 562. MICRATHENA
GRACILIS, FEMALE

Fig. 563.
MICRATHENA REDUVIANA

on each side; and at the apex there are four conical spines. The
abdomen is black, marked with yellow spots, a double spot on
each side at the base, followed by four spots in a row on each
side, and there are other yellow spots.

Family MIMETID^E (Mi-met'-i-dae)

The Mimetids (Mi-met'ids)

The name of the typical genus of this family Mimetus is
from the Greek mimetos, to be imitated or copied, and was sug-

Fig. 564. TARSUS OF FIRST LEG OF MIMETUS INTERFECTOR

gested by a mistaken belief that these spiders build a double
web like that of Theridium and that of Aranea connected.
The members of this family are very easily recognized b>

518

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the armature of the tibiae and metatarsi of the first two pairs of
legs (Fig. 564). These are armed with a series of very long spines
regularly spaced, and with a series of much shorter spines between
each two long spines; the short spines are curved and the members
of each series are successively longer and longer.

These are slow moving spiders; they are found on low plants
and bushes, or under rubbish on the ground. They make little
use of their thread, as they construct no definite web.

Only about thirty species are known from the entire world.
Three species occur in the United States; these represent two
genera which can be separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE MIMETID/E

A. Clypeus much narrower than the ocular area; posterior
legs much shorter than the anterior legs. P. 519.

Mimetus
AA. Clypeus not narrower than the ocular area; posterior legs

not much shorter than the anterior legs.

P. 520.

Ero

Genus MIMETUS (Mi-me'tus)

In this genus the eyes are situ-
ated near the front edge of the head,
the clypeus being reduced to a very
narrow area. These spiders are said
to feed exclusively on other spiders.
They live in dry and warm places,
on bushes and fences and occasionally
in houses, where they invade the webs
of Tberidion tepidariorum. According
to I lentz the egg-sac is oblong and
tapers equally at both ends; they are
made in the webs of their victims.
Two species have been recognized
in our fauna.

Mimetus interfector (M. in-ter-
fec'tor). — This is the best known
representative of the genus. It is
pale yellowish in colour and variable

1 65. MIMETUS INTERFECTOR

519

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in its markings; two individuals are represented in Fig. 565;
there is a double V-shaped band on the cephalothorax; on
the dorsal wall of the abdomen there is on each side near the
middle of its length a black, more or less projecting point,
and extending back from each of these to near the tip of the
abdomen, a series of S-shaped spots; fine transverse lines extend
between these two series of spots. There may be white spots
on the basal part of the abdomen and bright red points scattered
over the entire dorsal surface. The legs are conspicuously marked
with black points. The length of the body is nearly one fourth
of an inch.

Mimetus syllepsicus (M. syl-lep'si-cus). — "Pale green; ceph-
alothorax varied with black; abdomen with a waved line and disk
black; feet and palpi very hairy; thighs of first and second pairs
of legs with a black ring near the tip." (Hentz.) The species
was described from North Carolina. I have not seen it.

Genus ERO (E'ro)

The eyes are much farther from the front edge of the head
than in the preceding genus. These spiders are found in damp
places under stones and in win-
ter under leaves. About a dozen
species are known; only one of
which occurs in our fauna.

Fig. 566. ERO FURCATA, FEMALE

a, dorsal view b, profile

c, epigynum (after Keyserling)

Fig. 567.
EGG-SAC OF ERO FURCATA

Ero jurcata (E. fur-ca'ta).-- The cephalothorax is light
yellow, with a broad dark band on each side, and a narrow median

520

Superfamily Argiopoidea

line, crossed by a crescent-shaped mark on the highest part.
The abdomen is grayish, with brown spots of various shapes
(Fig. 566). The abdomen is as high as long, and bears a pair
of humps on the highest part.

The egg-sac of this species (Fig. 567) is very characteristic
in form. It is nearly spherical and is suspended by a cord of
coarse threads, which are continued over the egg-sac as a loose
network. I have found it most often attached to cliffs in shady
places.

Family THOMISID^ (Tho-mis'i-dae)

The Crab-spiders

The crab-spiders are so called on account of the short and
broad form of the body, the crab-like attitude of the legs in most
of the species, and the curious fact that these can walk more
readily sidewise or backward than forward. In one of our genera
(Tibellus), however, the body is long and slender.

The first and second pairs of legs in the more typical forms

are much stouter and longer

than the third and fourth pairs;
and in these forms the third pair
of legs is directed forward like
the first and second pairs (Fig.
568). The tarsi are furnished
with two claws. The eyes are
small, dark in colour, and ar-
ranged in two rows, which are
almost always recurved. The

lower margin of the furrow of Fig. 568. a crar-spider

the cheliceras is indistinct and

unarmed; the upper margin is either unarmed or furnished with
one or two teeth.

These spiders spin no webs; some species run swiftiy and
pursue their prey, while others of slower gait depend on their
concealing colours and lie in wait for it. They live chiefly on
plants and fences, and in the winter hide in cracks and under
stones and bark. Most of the species are marked with gray and
brown, like the bark upon which they live. Some species con-
ceal themselves in flowers, where they lie in ambush. These
are brightly coloured, like the flowers they inhabit, so that insects

521

Superfamily Argiopoidea

visiting these flowers may alight within reach of a spider before
seeing it.

The egg-sac is lenticular in form and is usually formed of
two equal valves, united at the border, which presents a little
circular fringe. In the subfamily Misumeninae, the egg-sac is
sometimes free and sometimes suspended like a hammock in a
retreat formed of rolled or drawn together leaves; in the sub-
family Philodrominae, it is fixed by one of its valves. In most
cases after the egg-sac is made, the female quits her wandering
habits in order to watch it.

In the palpus of the male, the tibia is armed with apophyses,
which vary in form and afford good characters for distinguishing
the species. In the male of Xysticus ferox, which maybe taken
as an illustration of the family, the genital bulb, when expanded,
is of the form shown in Fig. 569. The subtegulum is well-
developed, but does not bear anelli; the tegulum is large; the

Fig. 569.

GENITAL BULB OF XYSTICUS

FEROX, EXPANDED

Fig. 57°-

GENITAL BULB OF

XYSTICUS FEROX,

UNEXPANDED

Fig. 571. CYMBIUM

OF XYSTICUS

GULOSUS, SHOWING

THE TUTACULUM

embolus is of the spiral type, and has all of the parts characteristic
of that type well-developed; there is a medium apophysis of
moderate size; and, beyond the median apophysis, a larger,
hooked, terminal apophysis. The development of these apophy-
ses, however, appear to be characteristic of the genus Xysticus.
I have not observed them in any other members of this family.
The most striking characteristic of the genital bulb is the ab-
sence of a conductor of the embolus and, in most of the genera,
of a greater or less modification of the edge of the cymbium for

522

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the protection of the tip of the embolus. To this modified part
of the cymbium I have applied the name tutaculum (tu-tac'u-lum).
The tutaculum is most highly developed in the genus Xysticus;
here it is formed by an expansion of both the outer face of the
cymbium, which part is clothed with hairs, and of an expansion
of the lower edge bounding the alveolus, the two constituting
a groove in which the tip of the embolus rests in the unexpanded
condition of the bulb (Fig. 570). The tip of the edge of the inner
part of the tutaculum is often densely chitinized and in these
cases may appear in the unexpanded bulb like an apophysis of
the bulb. Figure 571 represents the cymbium of Xysticus gulosus
with the genital bulb removed so as to expose the tutaculum.

The Thomisidae includes several well-marked subfamilies;
but only two of these are represented in our fauna; these can be
separated as follows:

TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES OF THE THOMISID/E

A. Tarsi of the first and second pairs of legs not scopulate
beneath; third and fourth pairs of legs, usually much
shorter than the first and second pairs; hairs of the body
filiform or rod-shaped and erect; upper margin of the
furrow of the chelicerae without teeth. P. 523.

Misumenin^e
AA. Tarsi of the first and second pairs of legs scopulate beneath
in the females at least; third and fourth pairs of legs as long
as or nearly as long as the first and second pairs; hairs of
the body pubescent or plumose, and prone, not erect;
upper margin of the furrow of the chelicerae with one or
two teeth. P. 541. PhilodromiN/'e

Subfamily MISUMENIN^E (Mi-su-me-ni'-nae)

In this subfamily the tarsi of the first and second pairs of
legs are not furnished with scopulae in either sex, though often
they are thickly clothed with ordinary hairs; the third and fourth
pairs of legs are usually much shorter than the first and second
pairs; the hairs of the body are filiform or rod-shaped and erect;
and the upper margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is without
teeth.

This subfamily includes the majority of our species of crab-

523

Superfamily Argiopoidea

spiders; the genera occurring in the United States can be separated
as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE MISUMENINyE

A. First and second pairs of legs devoid of spines except
beneath the tibiae and metatarsi, or with one or two
minute ones elsewhere. P. 525. Misumena

AA. First and second pairs of legs with distinct spines in ad-
dition to those beneath the tibiae and metatarsi.
B. Abdomen high and pointed behind. P. 524. Tmarus
BB. Abdomen broadly rounded behind.

C. Cephalothorax very flat. P. 531. Coriarachne

CC. Cephalothorax moderately high.

D. Abdomen, cephalothorax, and legs pale whitish or
yellowish, but little marked except bands on legs
of male. P. 529. Misumessus

DD. Abdomen or cephalothorax and legs dark or heavily
marked with dark.
E. Median ocular area longer than wide; tibiae of the
first and second pairs of legs with only two
pairs of spines beneath; some of the setae clavate.
P. 530. Oxyptila

EE. Median ocular area as wide as or wider than long;
tibiae of the first and second pairs of legs with
more than two pairs of inferior spines; setae some-
times blunt but never clavate.
F. Tarsal claws of the first two pairs of legs with
only five or six teeth. P. 532. Xysticus
FF. Tarsal claws of the first two pairs of legs with
more than six teeth. P. 540. Synema

Genus TMARUS (Tma'rus)

The members of this genus are easily distinguished from
other crab-spiders occurring in our fauna by the fact that the ab-
domen is high and pointed behind (Fig. 572). The lateral eyes
of each side are on two distinct tubercles, of which the posterior
is the larger.

These spiders live on plants and can run with great rapidity.
Their colours are more or less protective. When one of these

524

Superfamily Argiopoidea

spiders is at rest upon a twig, it clasps it closely with its legs,
and the form of the bod)' is such that the spider appears like a
bud or a stump of a petiole.

Fig. 572. SIDE VIEW
OF THE ABDOMEN

OF TMARUS AN-
GULATUS, FEMALE

Five species have been
described from the United
States, of which the follow-

. . , Fig. 573

ing is the most common.

Tmarus angulatus (T. an-gu-la'tus). — The
colour of the body is dark yellow flecked with
five brown spots; the abdomen is crossed by
three or four darker bands (Fig. 573). The
length of the body is about one fourth inch.

The male differs from the female in having
a smaller abdomen. The genital bulb (Fig. 574)
lacks apophyses; the embolus is long and curved,
and the tip of it is protected by a tutaculum.

This is a widely distributed species; it is
the Tbomisus caudatus of Hentz.

TMARUS ANGULATUS

./
Fig. 574-

palpus of male
of tmarus
angulatus

Genus MISUMENA (Mi-su'me-na)

The first and second pairs of legs are almost entirely devoid
of spines except beneath the tibia? and the metatarsi. The eyes
of the anterior row are equidistant and are in a slightly recurved
line. The eyes of the second row are equidistant and in a more
or less recurved line. The median ocular area is a little narrower
in front than behind; its length and width are equal. The lateral
eyes are situated in slightly elevated confluent tubercles.

lo this genus belong the most conspicuous of the crab-
spiders, some of them being quite large and white or bright Iv
coloured. About a dozen species are known from the United

525

Superfamiiy Argiopoidea

Fig. 575. MISUMENA VATIA, FEMALE

States; the larger number of these are found in the Far West.

The two following species are widely distributed, and are those

that are most likely to attract attention.

Misumena vatia (M. va'ti-a). — This is the most commonly

observed member of the family, being frequently found in flowers.

The female (Fig. 575)
measures, when full-grown,
from one third to one half
inch in length. It is milk-
white or yellow, with, in
many cases, a light crim-
son band on each side of
the abdomen, and another
in the eye-region. The
sides of the thorax are
slightly darkened. On the
anterior margin of the
epigynum (Fig. 576) there

is a projecting plate, with a large deep notch behind in the

middle, and on each side of this a more or less distinct notch.

The openings of the sper-

mathecas are one on each side

behind the point between the

central and the lateral notch.
The male is only one

eighth or one sixth inch in

length. The cephalothorax is

darker at the sides than that

of the female; the abdomen is

marked with two parallel dark

marks or lines of spots and

has a dark stripe on each

side. The embolus, although

coiled, is short. In the unexpanded bulb it arises near the

distal end of the alveolus and is coiled backward and outward,

so that the tip of it is protected by the margin of the cymbium,

which is slightly widened at this point (Fig. 577).

The egg-sac is made upon a leaf and protected by folding a

part of the leaf over it and fastening it down with a sheet of silk

(Fig. 578). The specimen figured was on a leaf of milkweed

526

Fir. 576.
EPIGYNUM OF MISUMENA VATIA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and was lemon-yellow in colour except the red band on either
side of the abdomen. It was taken in August.

This spider is remarkable for the change in colour which takes
place in it when it migrates to flowers differing in colour from
those previously occupied. In the spring and in the early part
of the summer it is most often found in the flowers of Trillium.
the white fleabane, and
other white flowers. Its
ground colour is then white,

Fig. S77-

PALPUS OF MALE OF

MISUMENA VATIA

Fig. 578.
MISUMENA VATIA AND EGG-SAC

which protects it from observation by the flower-visiting
insects, and enables it more readily to capture them. Later
in the season it migrates in large numbers to the flowers
of goldenrod, and is then usually yellow. The spray of golden-
rod illustrated by Fig. 579 bore two of these spiders, one be-
neath each branch, which resembled the flowers in colour so
closely that it was very difficult to detect their presence.

Doctor Packard ('05) proved experimentally, by placing white
individuals on goldenrod that they changed from white to yellow
in the course of ten or eleven days.

Misumena alcatoria (M. a-le-a-to'ri-a).— - This is a common
white or yellow crab-spider; the female resembles Misumena
valia, described above, quite closely; but it (Fig. 580, a) does
nol have the crimson markings at the sides of the abdomen,
characteristic of M . vatia though it occasionally has dark reddish
brown marks in the same places and a double row of dark spots

527

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in the middle of the back (Fig. 580, b). In this species, there is a
pale, transverse band, between the two rows of eyes (Fig. 581),

{ * '**"'*^*^

w*^~

• J&&*d£*^lt

' ^'' B

jfevj

^^^1

^■Kf , ;*M

jk<

tw^-jr

cm T&B*.

•4^Df J ^-^Jk

(Photographed by if. V. Slingerland)
Fig. S7Q-
SPRAY OF G0LDENROD INHABITED BY MISUMENA VATIA

Fi?;. 580. MISUMENA ALEATORIA
<z, the unspotted form b, the spotted form

which extends from the tubercle bearing the lateral eyes of one
side to that of the other side. This band often appears like a ridge ;
and its presence has led some writers to place this and similarly

528

Superfamily Argiopoidea

marked species, in the genus Runcinia, in which there is a trans-
verse ridge in this position. But the arrangement of the eyes
in this species is that characteristic of Misumena and not that of
Runcinia, in which the median eyes of each row are farther from
the lateral eyes than from each
other; while in Misumena the
eyes of each row are equidistant.

Fig. 581.
FACE OF MISUMENA ALEATORIA

Fig. 582.

PALPUS OF MALE

OF MISUMENA

ALEATORIA

The epigynum of this spe-
cies resembles quite closely that
of M.' vatia figured above.

The male measures only one eighth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is green with the sides dark brown; the abdomen
is bright yellow. The first two pairs of legs are very long and are
dark brown in colour. The embolus is short and straight. In the
unexpanded bulb, it arises on the distal margin of the bulb in
the tip of the alveolus and projects outward and slightly forward
(Fig. 582); the tip of it rests in a depression in the face of the
cymbium, just outside the margin of the alveolus.

Genus MISUMESSUS (Mis-u-mes'sus)

This genus is closely allied to Misumena but differs in having
large and prominent spines on the femora of the first and second
pairs of legs, and on the upper face of the tibia? of the same
legs. The cephalothorax and abdomen are more spiny than in
Misumena. The tubercles of the lateral eyes are joined by a
rounded ridge, and the posterior lateral eyes are not larger than
the posterior median eyes.

Eight species of this genus have been found in the United
States; they are almost entirely restricted to the South

529

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and the Far West; but the following species is widely distrib-
uted.

Misumessus asperatus (M. as-pe-ra'tus). — The female of
this species is one fourth inch in length; it is usually pale yellow
in colour with dull red markings (Fig. 583) or the ground colour
may be greenish. There is a brownish stripe on each side of the

Fig. 583.
MISUMESSUS ASPERATUS

Fig. 584. PALPUS OF
MALE OF MISUMES-
SUS ASPERATUS

thorax; a median light red band on the basal half of the abdo-
men; two bands or rows of spots on the hind half; and a band
on each side.

The male resembles the female in colour and markings but
is only about one half as long. The palpus of the male is large;
the embolus is long and coiled; in the unexpanded bulb it arises
from the distal end of the bulb; it is coiled downward and out-
ward over the lower edge of the cymbium, and the terminal
portion of it rests in a depression on the lateral face of the cym-
bium (Fig. 584).

GenusOXYPTlLA (Ox-yp'ti-la)

In this genus the median ocular area is longer than wide.
The legs are short and armed with but few spines; the tibiae
of the first and second pairs of legs bear only two pairs of inferior
spines (Fig. 585). The cuticle is clothed with setae of various
types, some of them are pointed while others are clavate or
spatulate.

Seven species are now listed from the United States. In
Psyche, May, 1895, Mr. Banks published descriptions of six of

5 30

Superfamily Argiopoidea

these species, all that were known at that
time, and gave a table for separating the
species.

The following is the most common of
our species:

Oxyptila conspurcaia (O. con-spur-ca'ta). — In
this species there is only one spine above on the
metatarsus of the first legs, and the tibia of these
legs is not spotted. The cephalothorax is reddish
yellow, paler in the middle, usually with some
silvery white lines; the sides of the cephalothorax
are either wholly brown or with two brown stripes
on each side, the upper one broadest behind and
ending in a darker spot. The abdomen is ir-
regularly spotted. The length of the bod)' is one seventh inch.

Fig. 585.

TIBIA OF

FIRST LEG OF

OXYPTILA

Genus CORIARACHNE (Co-ri-a-rach'ne)

The cephalothorax is strongly depressed and flat. The pos-
terior row of eyes is strongly recurved, with the median eyes
smaller than the lateral and farther from the lateral eyes than
from each other. The anterior row of eyes is straight or nearly
so, with the median eyes much smaller than the lateral; the eyes

of this row are usually equidistant.
The median ocular area is wider
than long. In the more typical
species, the lateral eyes on each
side are farther apart than are the
anterior median and the posterior
median eyes; but this is not true
of the species described below.

Three of our species have been
placed in this genus; one, C. briin-
neipes, is from the West Coast, and
one, C. floridana, is from Florida,
1 have seen neither of these; the
third, the following one, is widely distributed.

Coriaracbne versicolor (C. ver-sic'o-lor). — The female (Fig.
586) is about one fourth inch in length, white or yellowish in
colour, and spotted with black and gray. The spots vary greatly

Fig. 586.
CORIARACHNE VERSICOLOR

531

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in different individuals, and are sometimes so large, especially
in males, that the spider is nearly black. This spider closely
resembles in appearance a Xysticus; but the body is more flattened
than in that genus, and the genital bulb of the male is quite
diffeient. The female can be most easily recognized by the form
of the epigynum (Fig. 587); and the male, by the form of the
genital bulb (Fig. 588). The embolus is long and curved. In

«te»M Imp*

Fig. 587.

EPIGYNUM OF CORIARACHNE

VERSICOLOR

Fig. 588.

PALPUS OF MALE

OF CORIARACHNE

VERSICOLOR

the unexpanded bulb, the terminal part of it is protected by the
lower edge of the cymbium, bordering the alveolus, but a well-
developed tutaculum, such as is seen in Xysticus, is lacking;
so also are lacking the prominent apophysis of the bulb char-
acteristic of Xysticus.

This is a common species, which is found on fences and under
stones; its colours frequently so closely resemble those of the ob-
jects upon which it is found that it is seen with difficulty.

Genus XYSTICUS (Xys'ti-cus)

In the genus Xysticus the posterior eyes are nearly equi-
distant, with the median a little smaller than the lateral; the
anterior median eyes are usually a little farther from each other
than from the anterior lateral eyes and much smaller than
the anterior lateral eyes. The median ocular area is as wide
as or wider than long, and is as wide as or a little wider in
front than behind. The lateral eyes of each side are situated

532

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in low subconfluent tubercles. The tibiae and metatarsi of the
anterior legs are usually furnished with more than three pairs of
inferior spines. The tarsal claws are furnished with five or six
isolated teeth (Fig. 589). The cuticle is clothed with simple,
isolated hairs, which are usually pointed, rarely blunt, but never
clavate.

These spiders live under stones and leaves or under loose bark ;
a few live on low plants. They are fawn-coloured or brownish.
Usually there is a broad clear band on the cephalothorax enclosing

Fig. 589. TARSUS OF XYSTH

in front an obscure triangular spot, and the abdomen is orna-
mented with a broad, strongly notched band; but there are,
however, some unicolorous species.

In the palpus of the males the lower margin of the cymbium
bears an appendage for the protection of the tip of the embolus,
the tutaculum, and the genital bulb bears a pair of well-developed
apophyses.

The genus is a very large one; nearly forty species have been
described from the United States, which is about one third of
our thomisid fauna. Only a few of our more common and more
widely distributed species can be described here; but a large
proportion of the species commonly taken are included in this
short list.

Xysticus elegans (X. el'e-gans). — The female measures
one third inch in length. The ground colour of the cephalothorax
is brownish yellow, with a narrow, white, marginal seam; the sides
are veined with brownish red; there is a lighter, median, longi-
tudinal band, which is also streaked with red, at leas! to the
beginning of the last third of its length where the red markings
end in a blunt point. The abdomen is brown above, somewhat
lighter before the middle, and with several narrow, bowed, trans-
verse bands behind; the sides and venter are yellow. The epigy-
num, as figured by Kevserling, is represented in Fig. 590.

533

Superfamily Argiopoidea

I have not seen this sex of the species. The above account
is drawn from Keyserling's original description of Xysticus emer-
toni, which is now regarded as the female of the species the male
of which he had described on an earlier page of his Spinnen
Amerikas as Xysticus elegans.

The male of X. elegans (Fig. 591) measures about one fourth
inch in length. It presents a very striking appearance, due to
its strongly contrasting colours. The cephalothorax is reddish
brown, streaked and flecked with yellow, and with a broad, light,
median, longitudinal band, which is bordered on each side with
a yellow line; these two lines come together behind in a point;
and there is a yellow transverse band between the two rows of
eyes. The abdomen is brownish white dotted with brown
points, and with four pairs of large brown patches as shown in the
figure. The unexpanded palpus is represented in Fig. 592.

This species is widely distributed in the Eastern States.

Xysticus ferox (X. fe'rox).— This species is of medium size,
the female (Fig. 593, a) measuring about one fourth inch in
length, and the male (Fig. 593, b) one fifth inch. The cephalo-
thorax is yellowish in the middle and reddish brown on the sides,
marked with a net-work of dark lines; at the posterior end there is
a small median black spot and a larger one on each side. The
abdomen is brownish gray above and smoky white on the sides;
there are several small, black spots on the basal part above,
and three pairs of transverse black bars bordered in front with
white on the hind part. The form of the epigynum is represented
in Fig. 594 and that of the male palpus in Figs. 569 and 570
on page 522.

Xysticus formosus (X. for-mo'sus). — This is a beautiful
brown and white species, which can be easily recognized by
its characteristic markings (Fig. 595). The female measures
one fourth inch in length; the male, one fifth. It is found in the
Northern States.

Xysticus gulosus (X. gu-lo'sus). — This is a large species,
the female (Fig. 596) measuring from one fourth to one third
inch in length. It is grayish brown in colour and presents a very
distinctively characteristic appearance from the fact that the
white ground is largely covered with minute brown specks.
The median lighter area of the cephalothorax, and transverse
light bands on the hind part of the abdomen are more or less

5 34

Fig. 590.
EPIGYNUM OF XYSTICUS

ELEGAXS
(after Ceyserling)

Fig. S92.

PALPUS OF MALE

OF XYSTICUS

ELEGAXS

Fig. 594.
EPIGYNUM OF XYSTICUS

FEROX

Fig. sgi.
XYSTICUS ELEGANS, MALE

Fig. $93'

XYSTICUS l EROX

a, Female h, immature male

535

Superfamily Argiopoidea

distinct, more distinct in immature individuals than in adults.
There is a light coloured seam on the lateral margin of the cephalo-
thorax; that part of the thorax that is overlapped by the abdomen
is white; and on each side of this white area there is a small
white spot on a black patch. On each side of the guide of the
epigynum, there is a prominent, dark-coloured, pear-shaped body

(Fig- 597)-

The male measures one fifth inch in length and is more
distinctly marked than the adult female. The two apophyses
of the genital bulb are hook-like, with the tips curved toward
each other (Fig. 598).

This species is very widely distributed and common in many
places; it is usually found under bark or stones.

Xysticus limbatus (X. lim-ba'tus).— - The female (Fig. 599)
measures about two fifths inch in length. The cephalothorax
is reddish brown streaked and marbled with a lighter colour; on
the lateral margin there is a white seam; and in the middle a
broad longitudinal band, which is bordered with a yellow line
and marked with many irregular lines of this colour; the eye
space is reddish yellow. The sides of the abdomen are yellowish
white, with rows of brown points in oblique wrinkles; the dorsal
area is brown marked by transverse lines of a lighter colour. The
cavity of the epigynum (Fig. 600) is large and deep; the guide
is but slightly raised, and consists of a median, longitudinal
partition, from the hind end of which an arm extends forward
and outward on each side.

The male is one third inch in length, and resembles the female
in markings; but it is a little darker. The apophysis on the
upper and outer face of the tibia of the palpus is very long and
slender (Fig. 601).

This species was described from Colorado and Texas; but
it is widely distributed in the East.

Xysticus luctans (X. luc'tans).— - The full-grown spider meas-
ures from one fourth to one third inch in length. The two sexes are
quite similar in colour and markings. The cephalothorax is light
reddish yellow, with four very distinct, brown, longitudinal
stripes, two on each side, one marginal, and one extending back
from the posterior lateral eye; there is a small brown spot near
the hind end of the cephalothorax, and a pair of similar spots
halfway between this and the eyes; the cephalothorax is unusu-

536

Fig. 595-
XYSTICUS FORMOSUS

Fi?. 597-
EPIGYNUM OF XYSTICUS GULOSUS

•Jm.

■: -

V?f *. ." * *•

: \

)

Fig. 596.
XYSTICUS GULOSUS

Fig. 598.
PAL PUS OF MALE OF
XYSTICUS GULOSUS

I - 509.
XYSTICUS LIMBATUS

f>oo.
I.I'K.N \l M . >l X\M H |>
LIMBA1 l S

5 37

Superfamily Argiopoidea

ally wide. The abdomen is light gray above, with three indis-
tinct darker longitudinal bands, and three pairs of black spots,
one pair near each end and a pair near the middle; besides these
there are some smaller marginal spots.

The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 602.

This widely distributed species has been commonly known
as Xysticus quadrilineatus, a name suggested by the four longi-
tudinal bands on the cephalothorax; it is unfortunate that this
name must be dropped for an older but less descriptive one.

Xysticus vervosus (X. ner-vo'sus). — The female measures
from one fourth to one third inch in length; the male, about
one fourth inch. The two sexes are similarly coloured and marked.
The cephalothorax is yellow with a narrow black line on the
margin; it is veined and marbled with brown on the sides; on the
middle of the back there is a broad lighter band (Fig. 603). The
abdomen is also light yellowish, and is marbled with white, and
spotted with brown; there are three or four pairs of irregular,
transverse, brown bars, bordered in front with white, on the
hind half of the abdomen, and a pair of small spots near the base.

The central cavity of the epigynum (Fig. 604) is divided
by a well-developed guide; and the openings of the spermathecae
are conspicuous and situated some distance behind the central
cavity of the epigynum.

In the palpus of the male the terminal apophysis (Fig. 605)
is twisted at the end.

This is a very common and widely distributed species.

Xysticus triguttatus (X. tri-gut-ta'tus). — The two sexes of
this species differ greatly in appearance. The female (Fig. 606)
measures one fifth inch in length; the cephalothorax is brownish
yellow, the abdomen, almost white; near the hind end of the
carapace there are three black spots, which probably suggested
the specific name; from the intermediate of these spots there
extends on each side toward the eyes a white band which is
wide behind and narrow in front; the eye-space is also white;
each posterior median eye is on a black spot; and there are irregu-
lar dark markings on each side of the carapace; the abdomen is
almost white, with a pair of black spots near the base, and three
or four pairs of, more or less broken, transverse, black stripes
on the hind half. In the cavity of the epigynum there is a pair
of dark coloured plates which probably function as a guide.

538

Fig. 601. TIBIA OF THE PALPUS

OF THE MALE OF XVSTICUS

LIMBATUS (after Keyserling)

Fig. 602. EPIGVNUMOF
XYSTICUS LUCTANS

Fig. 603. XYSTICUS NERVOSUS

Fig. 605.
PALPUS OF XYSTICUS NERVOSUS

Fig. 606.
XYSTICUS TRIGUTTATUS, FEMALE

Fig. 604. EPIGYNUM OF
XYSTICUS NERVOSUS

Fig. 007.
XYSTICUS TKH.l l l ITUS, MALE

5 39

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The male measures a little less than one sixth inch in length.
The cephalothorax is dark brown with a lighter median area
(Fig. 607) ; the femora of the first two pairs of legs are dark brown ;
and the abdomen is white with heavy, brownish black markings,
as shown in the figure.

This is a widely distributed species; it lives on grass and
on low bushes.

Genus SYNEMA (Sy-ne'ma)

The genus Synema is closely allied to Xysticus but differs
in the following characters: The median ocular area is a little
more narrow in front than behind; the anterior eyes are equi-
distant or even with the median nearer to each other than to
the lateral eyes; the tarsal claws of the first two pairs of legs are
furnished with more than five or six teeth, and the teeth extend
beyond the middle of the claw (Fig. 608); the cuticle is smooth
and clothed with scattered long hairs; and there are only three
pairs of spines on the
lower side of the tibiae
of the first and second

pairs of legs.

Fig. 608.
TARSAL CLAWS OF SYNEMA

Fig. 6og.
SYNEMA PARVULA

The original spelling of the generic name is that adopted
here; later Simon changed it to Syncema.

This is a large genus; but only three species pertaining to
it have been found in our fauna.

Synema parvula (S. par'vu-la). — The female measures a
little more than one eighth inch in length; the male, a little less.
The cephalothorax is brownish yellow, a little darker at the sides
and with a marginal, dark brown seam; the lateral ocular tuber-

540

Superfamily Argiopoidea

cles are white, and the median eyes are ringed with white. The
abdomen is white or light yellow, with a broad transverse black
or brown band near the hind end (Fig. 609). This band usually
has a broad deep notch in the middle of the front margin, but it is
not always thus notched. There are usually two or three pairs of
small brown spots between this band and the base of the abdomen.

This species is widely distributed; it is especially common
in the Southern Atlantic States. Hentz, who first described
the species, states that it is frequently found on the blossoms of
umbelliferous plants.

Synema bicolor (S. bi'co-lor). — The female measures one fifth
inch or a little more in length. The cephalothorax is dark brown,
almost black, with a lighter line in the middle and a white line on
each side near the edge. The abdomen is light gray with indis-
tinct lighter lines at the sides and small light spots in the middle.

This species is distributed from New England to Florida.

Synema obscura (S. ob-scu'ra). — The male measures one
seventh inch in length. The cephalothorax is dark red, lighter
above, with a yellow seam on the lateral margins. 'The eye-space
is brownish yellow. The abdomen is blackish brown above,
with a narrow, white transverse band in front, the hind margin
of which is irregularly toothed; the venter is a little lighter brown,
and flecked with white, especially in front.

The female has not been described. The male was described
from Mount Washington.

Subfamily PHILODROMINiE (Phil-od-ro-min'ae)

In this subfamily the tarsi of the first and second pairs of
legs are furnished with scopuke beneath, at least in the females
(Fig. 610). These scopulae can be easily distinguished from a

Fig. 610. TARSUS OF PHILODROMUS PERNDC, I I'M ALE

thick clothing of ordinary hairs, such, for example, as is found
in Xysticus (Fig. 589, p. 533), by the form of the tenent hairs

541

Superfamily Argiopoidea

(Fig. 6 1 1). The third and fourth pairs of legs are as long as or
nearly as long as the first and second pairs. The hairs of the

body are pubescent or plumose

(Fig. 6 1 2), and prone, not erect.

And the upper margin of the

furrow of the chelicerae is

armed with one or two teeth.
These spiders are very

active and pursue their prey

with great rapidity. Most of

the species live on plants;

when at rest, the body is

closely applied to the sup-
porting object, with the legs

stretched out separately or in

Fig. 611.
TENENTHAIR pairs.

from the Six genera are represented in our fauna;

philodromus these can be separated by the following table:

Fig. 612.

PLUMOSE HAIR OF

PHILODROMUS

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE PHILODROMIN/E

A. Second pair of legs very much longer than the first pair.
P. 547. Ebo

AA. Second pair of legs but little longer than the first pair.
B. Tibiae of the first and second pairs of legs armed with
five pairs of spines beneath. P. 545. Philodromoides
BB. Tibiae of the first and second pairs of legs armed with less
than five pairs of spines.
C. Posterior eyes in a slightly recurved line; posterior
eyes either equidistant or with the median eyes
farther from each other than from the lateral
eyes.
D. Posterior median eyes much farther from each other
than from the lateral eyes. Anterior lateral
eyes nearer to the anterior median eyes than to
the posterior median eyes. P. 54^. Philodromus
DD. Posterior eyes equidistant. Anterior lateral eyes
equidistant from the anterior median and the pos-
terior median, forming with them an equilateral
triangle on each side. P. 545. Apollophanes

542

Superfamily Argiopoidea

CC. Posterior eyes in a strongly recurved line; posterior

median eyes farther from the lateral eyes than from

each other.

D. Cephalothorax not at all or hardly longer than

wide. P. 548. Thanatus

DD. Cephalothorax much longer than wide. P. 549.

Tibellus

Genus PHILODROMUS (Phi-lod'ro-mus)

The second pair of legs are only slightly longer than the first
pair; and the third and fourth pairs are but little shorter than
the first and second pairs; the body is flat, and the abdomen
pointed behind; the posterior median eyes are much farther from
each other than from the lateral eyes; and the anterior lateral
eyes are nearer to the anterior
median eyes than to the pos-
terior median eyes.

Most of the species of
this genus live on plants; but
a few are found on houses and
fences. Some of them are
coloured protectively, closely
resembling the bark upon
which they are found.

The glistening white egg-
sacs of some of our species
are common and conspicuous
objects. They are made upon
the branches of the shrubs or
trees upon which the species
lives; and are often made in
the fork of a branch (Fig.
613). In making the cocoon,
the spider first spins a disk of

silk, the eggs are placed upon this, and are then covered with
another disk, and then the whole is covered with the densely
woven outer layer, which is stretched very taut. In the case
of Philodromus minutus, described below, a very different method
of caring for the cocoon is practised.

Fig. 613. EGG-SAC OF I'lllLODROMIS

543

Superfamily Argiopoidea

About thirty species of this genus are known from the United
States; among the more common species are the following:

Philodromus pernix (P. per'nix). — This is the most common
representative of the genus found on houses and fences, it some-
times occurs also on plants. It measures from one fourth to one
third inch in length. It is gray, resembling in colour old unpainted
buildings. In the female (Fig. 614), the cephalothorax is darker
at the sides; and there is a more or less distinct V-shaped, light
band on the hind margin of the head. On the basal part of the
abdomen there is a lanceolate median stripe; and on the hind part

Fig. 614. PHILODROMUS PERNIX, FEMALE

a herringbone pattern. The male is coloured like the female;
but in all that I have seen the V-shaped band on the head is not
so well-marked ; the legs are longer, and the abdomen more slender.

This is the Tbomisus vulgaris of Hentz.

Philodromus minutus (P. mi-nu'tus). — This little spider
measures only one eighth inch in length. The cephalothorax
is white or yellowish white, the sides reddish brown; the abdomen
is dirty white or yellowish; on the basal half of the abdomen
there is a median brown stripe, and on the hind half there are two
stripes, one on each side.

Although this spider is small, it attracts attention by the
curious way in which it cares for its eggs. The egg-sac is made
near the tip of a leaf; and then the tip bearing the egg-sac is folded
back and fastened down to the body of the leaf by many silken

544

Superfamily Argiopoidea

threads. The spider then remains on guard near the folded part
of the leaf (Fig. 615). A more common type of nest of this spider
is shown in Fig. 616.

This species is found in the Northeastern States.

Philodromus ornatus (P. or-na'tus). — This is a small species,
measuring only about one eighth inch in length. It is easily
recognized by its colour and markings (Fig. 617). The cephalo-
thorax is yellowish white, with the sides brown. The abdomen
is white above and brown or black on the sides; the dark patch
of each side is irregular in outline, as shown in the figure. Some-
times there is an indistinct brownish pattern in the middle of the
abdomen, and some faint dark chevrons near the hind end.

This species is found in the Eastern States.

Genus PHILODROMOIDES (Phi-lod-ro-moi'des)

The abdomen is twice as long as wide, a little wider behind
than at the base, somewhat pointed at the end. The eyes are
approximately equal in size; the anterior row much the shorter
and slightly recurved; median eyes of this row farther from each
other than from the side eyes; posterior row is also recurved; the
posterior lateral eyes on larger tubercles than any of the others;
posterior median eyes farther from each other than from the
posterior lateral eyes. The tibiae of the first and second pairs
of legs are armed beneath with five or six pairs of spines.

A single species has been described from Kansas.

Pbilodromoides pratarice (P. pra-tar'i-ae). — Cephalothorax
rusty brown, lighter at the sides and just back of the head; ab-
domen brown above, mottled and streaked with a lighter shade.
The length of the body is one fourth inch, the width one twelfth
inch.

Genus APOLLOPHANES (Ap-ol-loph'a-nes)

The cephalothorax is almost circular; the posterior row of
eyes is more strongly recurved than in Philodromus; the eyes
of the posterior row are equidistant. The anterior lateral eyes
are equidistant from the anterior median and the posterior
median, forming with them an equilateral triangle on each side.

Apollophanes texana (A. tex-a'na). — Cephalothorax yellowish,
slightly mottled with brown on sides, and two approximate dark

545

Fig. 615. PHILODROMUS MINUTUS GUARDING HER EGG-SAC

Fig. 616. LEAF BEARING EGG-SAC OF
PHILODROMUS MINUTUS

Fig. 617. PHILODROMUS ORNATUS

546

Superfamily Argiopoidea

marks on base of cephalic part. Abdomen pale, with a basal
brown spear-mark, and behind two more or less connected rows
of blackish spots. Abdomen about twice as long as broad.
The length of the body is about one fourth inch.

This species occurs in Texas, and is the only species as yet
found in the United States.

Genus EBO (E'bo)

The members of this genus are easily recognized by
the great length of the second pair of legs and the almost
straight posterior row of eyes. Only three species have been
described.

Ebo latithorax (E. lat-i-tho'rax). — This is a small spider
measuring only about one eighth inch in length. Thecephalo-
thorax is reddish yellow marked with dark brown specks. The
abdomen is brownish yellow, flecked with dark on the sides, and
quite far up on to the back
(Fig. 618), and with several in-
distinct chevrons on the hind
part.

This species occurs in the
Southern States.

Ebo oblongus (E. ob-lon'gus).
— This is larger than the pre-
ceding species, immature speci-
mens measuring nearly one fifth
inch in length. It differs also
in having the legs feebly spined.
It was described from specimens
taken in Georgia.

Ebo mexicana (E. mex-i-
ca'na). — The body is one sixth inch in length. The cepha-
lothorax is pale, with a large brown spot on each side, not
reaching behind to the posterior margin; each spot includes a
few white dots. There is a small brown posterior spot, and
two elongate brown spots behind the posterior median eyes. The
abdomen bears a basal, brown, spear-mark, margined with
white.

This species is found in the Southwest.

Fig. 61S.
EBO LATITHORAX (after Keyserling)

547

Superfamily Arglopoidea

Genus THANATUS (Than'a-tus)

In this and the following genus the fourth pair of legs are
longer than the first pair; and the posterior row of eyes are more
strongly recurved than in the preceding genera. In this genus
the cephalothorax is but little if at all longer than wide; and
the anterior lateral eyes are closer to the anterior median eyes
than to the posterior median eyes.

The species of Tbanatus resemble each other in general ap-
pearance and in colouration; they are all of a yellowish or grayish
red, with the abdomen marked with a lance-shaped band. Fifty
species are known, of which the two following have been described
from the United States.

Tbanatus lycosoides (T. ly-co-soi'des). — This species va-
ries considerably in markings. Figure 619 is from a photo-
graph of an unusually well-
marked individual. The ceph-
alothorax is reddish yellow
with a median, longitudinal,
brown band, which is wide in
front and tapers to a point be-
hind; the sides of the cephalo-
thorax are streaked with brown
and red. The abdomen is light
above, with a slender, brown,
lance-like spot in front, which
reaches beyond the middle, and
with an undulating band on each
side of the hind part. The an-
terior median eyes are much smaller than the anterior lateral eyes.
In many individuals there are no markings on the hind
part of the abdomen. In others there are two indistinct longi-
tudinal brown bands in the position occupied by the undulating
bands shown in the figure.

The female measures from one fourth to one third inch in
length; the male is a little smaller and has longer legs. This is
a widely distributed species.

Tbanatus coloradensis (T. col-o-ra-den'sis). — This is a Wes-
tern species which differs from the preceding in that the anterior
median eyes are as large as the anterior lateral eyes

548

Fig. 619. THANATUS LYCOSOIDES

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus TIBELLUS (Ti-bel'lus)

The members of this genus differ greatly in form from the
ordinary type of crab-spiders, the body being long and slender;
the cephalothorax is much longer than wide and the abdomen
is very long and nearly cylindrical. The posterior row of eyes
is strongly recurved, nearly forming a semicircle.

These spiders are found on grass and on bushes; when at
rest the legs are stretched out longitudinally, two pairs forward
and two pairs backward.

Only two species are known
from the United States.

Tibellus duttonii (T.dut-to'ni-i).
— Our two species of Tibellus re-
semble each other so closely that
it requires careful observation to
separate them. The body is light
gray or yellow with three longitud-
inal brown stripes extending the
whole length of both the cephalo-
thorax and the abdomen (Fig. 620).
There is usually a pair of small
black spots on the abdomen near
the middle of the second half.
Sometimes the lateral bands on the
cephalothorax are broken into
distinct brown spots; and there
may be several dark brown spots
along the sides of the abdomen.
The male is about one third
inch in length; the female, about
one half inch. This species is distinguished from the Tibellus
oblongus by the following characters: The space between the
posterior median eyes is considerably less, sometimes only half
as great, as the space between one of them and the posterior
lateral eye of the same side. In the palpus of the male the short
embolus is very much curved. The second legs are more than five
times as long as the cephalothorax. The epigyna of the two
species are very similar.

This is a very widely distributed species; and is common
on bushes and on grass.

549

Fig. 620. TIBELLUS DUITOXII

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Tibellus oblongus (T. ob-lon'gus). — This species is a little
less slender than the preceding and the legs are comparatively
shorter, the second legs being not quite five times as long as the
cephalothorax. The space between the posterior median eyes
is only a little less than that between one of them and the posterior
lateral eye of the same side. In the palpus of the male, the short
embolus is nearly straight.

This species is widely distributed; and like the preceding
is common on bushes and on grass.

Family SELENOPIDiE (Sel-e-nop'i-dae)

The Selenopidae includes a single genus, Selenops, of which
about a dozen species are known. These are tropical spiders
of large or of medium size; and they do not occur naturally within
the limits of the United States, except perhaps in the extreme
South. A single individual of Selenops aissus has been reported
from Tortugas Island, Fla.; but this may have been introduced.
As specimens of the same species have been taken at Ithaca,
N. Y., in a room where bananas were stored, we infer that there
is a chance of its being found wherever tropical fruit is taken,
and include an account of it here.

Genus SELENOPS (Se-le'nops)

The members of this genus resemble the crab-spiders in
the attitude of their legs. They are of large or of medium size
and are remarkable for the extreme flatness of the body. They
can be easily recognized by the arrangenemt of the eyes, which
is unusual in that the posterior median eyes have moved to a
position in front of the posterior lateral eyes and in line with the
four anterior eyes; the anterior row may be said, therefore, to
to consist of six eyes. The following is the only species that has
been recorded from the United States.

Selenops aissus (S. a-is'sus). — The adult female measures
one half inch in length and nearly one fourth inch in width.
The cephalothorax is reddish brown, the abdomen brownish
yellow flecked with dark specks; the lateral and the hind margins
of the abdomen are dark. When viewed from above only six
eyes are visible (Fig. 621); these are the four anterior eyes, which

550

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are nearly equal in size, the anterior median eyes being slightly
smaller than the anterior lateral, and the posterior lateral eyes,
which are much larger than the anterior eyes. Also, when
viewed from in front only six eyes are visible, the four anterior
eyes, and the posterior median eyes, occupying the ends of the

Fig. 621. SELEXOPS AISSUS

front row; these eyes are much smaller than the four anterior
eyes. The tibiae of the lour legs bear on the lower surface three
pairs of spines, and the metatarsi two pairs.

The spiders of this genus are found under the bark of trees,
under stones, and in other similar situations; the depressed form
of the body enables them to enter thin spaces, or to conceal
themselves in slight depressions when lying in wait for their prey;
and they run with astonishing rapidity.

Family HETEROPODID^E (Het-er-o-pod'i-dae)

The Giant Crab-spiders

There occur within the limits of our fauna a small number
of large spiders, which on account of their size and the fact that
they resemble thomisids in the form of the body and the attitude
of the legs may be termed giant crab-spiders.

These are really tropical or subtropical spiders whose range
extends into the southern part of our territory. One of them,

55'

Superfamily Argiopoidea

however, is often seen in the North, being brought here with
tropical fruits. It is the so-called tarantula found in bunches of
bananas, and which periodically gives rise to sensational news-
paper stories.

While these spiders resemble the Thomisidae in the form of
the body and the attitude of the legs, they differ from that family
and resemble the Clubionidae in the structure of the chelicerae,
the lower margin of the furrow being distinct and armed. In
this respect they resemble the Selenopidas; but they differ from
the members of that family in the arrangement of the eyes. In
the Heteropodidae the eyes are arranged in two rows of four each.

The two genera of giant crab-spiders represented in our
fauna can be separated as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE HETEROPODID/'E

A. Anterior median eyes smaller than the anterior lateral

eyes; clypeus high, at least as high as the diameter of

the anterior lateral eyes. P. 552. Heteropoda

AA. Anterior median eyes equal to or larger than the anterior

lateral eyes, clypeus very low, about half the diameter of an

anterior median eye. P. 554. Olios

Genus HETEROPODA (Het-e-rop'o-da)

This genus includes a large number of tropical. species; but
the following is the only one whose range extends into our territory.

The Banana Spider, Heteropoda venatoria (H. ve-na-to'ri-a).
-One often hears of a "tarantula" emerging from a bunch of
bananas in a fruit store in the North; but I know of but few in-
stances in which a true tarantula has been found in such a place.
The spider that causes consternation among clerks and customers
of fruit stores is usually this giant crab-spider; although, more
rarely, it may be the Selenops described on an earlier page.

The banana spider is a large yellowish spider, with a band of
white hairs on the clypeus, and a similar transverse band near
the hind margin of the cephalothorax. The male is represented,
natural size, by Fig. 622, and the female, also natural size, by
Fig. 623.

This species is found in all tropical regions, its range extending
clear around the world. It is very abundant in all tropical

552

Fig. 622. HETEROPODA VENATORIA, MALE

Fig. 623. HETEROPODA VENATORIA, FEMALE

553

Superfamily Argiopoldea

seaport towns, being transported in trading vessels. Its chief
food is cockroaches. Within our territory, it is at home only in
the far South; but it is very often found in fruit stores in the
North, where it is brought in bunches of bananas.

The female makes a flat, cushion-like egg-sac. The specimens
before me are slightly tinged with pink. The egg-sac is three
fourths inch wide, but only about one fourth inch thick. It is
carried by the female beneath her body (Fig. 624) in a way similar

Fig. 624. HETEROPODA VENATORIA CARRYING HER EGG-SAC

to that of the nursery-web weavers (Pisauridae). The spiderlings
emerge through a slit made in the margin of the egg-sac.

Genus OLIOS (O'li-os)

This is a very large genus, including 120 described species,
which are distributed in all tropical and subtropical regions.
Two species occur in the southwestern portions of the United
States.

554

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Olios abnormis (O. ab-nor'mis). The male measures from
one third to one half inch in length; the female has not been
described. In the male the entire cephalothorax, mouth-
parts, and legs are brownish yellow, with the sternum lighter;
the abdomen is yellow, with a brown or brown-bordered
longitudinal dorsal band, behind which there may be indistinct
chevrons.

This species was described from New Mexico.

Olios jasciculatus (O. fas-cic-u-la'tus). — Only the female
of this species has been described. It is a large spider, measuring
one inch in length. The cephalothorax, pedipalps, and legs are
reddish brown; but the cephalothorax is darker than these appen-
dages; the chelicerae are nearly entirely black. The abdomen
is yellowish brown, with several brown spots on the middle line,
and on the hind part an indistinct lighter chevron.

This species occurs in the Southwestern States.

Family CTENIDiE (Cten'i-dae)

The Wandering Spiders

This is a small family of spiders, which is composed of forms
closely allied to the Clubionidas, but which differ, in most cases,
from that family in the arrangement of their eyes. These,
except in Titiotus, are situated in three or
four transverse rows (Fig. 625). They
also differ from the Clubionidae in that
the truncate end of the endites is entirely
clothed with very dense uneven hairs.
As a rule they are two-clawed spiders;
but in the genus Cupiennius a third claw
is present.

The members of this family wander
about in search of their prey, many of
them over the foliage of forests at night.
Some of the tropical species are very
large. They make no webs for a dwelling, but some species
appear to inhabit burrows in the ground.

The genera represented in the United States can be separated
as follows:

Fig. 62s.
HEAD OF CTENUS

snow i\c

THE ARK iNGEMENT

OF l Hi; EYES

555

Superfamily Arglopoidea

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE CTENID/E

A. With only two tarsal claws.

B. Anterior row of eyes very strongly recurved. P. 556.

Ctenus
BB. Anterior row of eyes only slightly recurved. P. 556.

Titiotus
AA. With a third tarsal claw. P. 557. Cupiennius

Genus CTENUS (Cte'nus)

The eyes are in three rows, the anterior lateral eyes being
opposite the posterior median eyes or nearly so (Fig. 625). The
anterior lateral eyes are smaller than the anterior median eyes.
The tarsi bear only two claws.

Three species have been found in the United States; the
following are the better known of these:

Ctenus hibernalis (C. hi-ber-na'lis).— - This is a tawny species
with a median, longitudinal, yellowish band above extending
over both the cephalothorax and the abdomen, and with a darker
band on either side. The length of the body of the female is
one third inch. It is widely distributed in the Southern States.

Ctenus punctulatus (C. punc-tu-la'tus). — This species is
described by Hentz as "yellowish rufous; cephalothorax with
two longitudinal blackish lines and two fainter scalloped ones
on each side; abdomen with two subobsolete lines of minute
white dots becoming more distinct toward the apex, where
may be seen a few irregularly placed white dots on the outside
of the lines, same colour unspotted beneath." The female meas-
ures one fourth inch in length. The species is widely distributed
in the South.

Genus TITIOTUS (Tit-i-o'tus)

The anterior eyes are in a slightly recurved row, are equal
in size, and are equidistant. The median ocular area is longer
than wide and its sides are subparallel. The clypeus is more
than three times as wide as the diameter of an anterior eye.
The following is the only known species.

Titiotus calif omicus (T. cal-i-for'ni-cus). — The body of
the female measures two thirds inch in length. It was described
from California.

556

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus CUPIENNIUS (Cu-pi-en'ni-us)

This genus is distinguished from the other genera of the
Ctenidae by the presence of a third tarsal claw in addition to the
tufts of terminal tenent hairs. Figure 626 represents the tip of
the tarsus, with one of the two tufts of
terminal tenent hairs removed so as to expose
the third claw.

Cupiennius sallei (C. sall'e-i). — This is a
Central American species which has been found
in Florida, and is the only representative of the
genus reported from the United States. It is
a large spider, measuring from one inch to one

and one third inches in length.

Fig. 626.

TARSAL (LAWS

OF CUPIENNIUS

(after Pickard-

CambriiJ^ii

Family CLUBIONIDjE (Clu-bi-on'i-dae)

The Clubionids (Clu-bi-on'ids)

This family includes
spiders that live in flat
tubular nests on plants,
usually in rolled leaves,
and others that live on
the ground, under stones
or rubbish or in moss.
As in the Thomisidaeand
I leteropodidae, these spi-
ders have eight eyes ar-
ranged in two rows, and
have only two tarsal
claws. They differ from
both of these families in
that the form of the
body and the attitude of
Fig. 62, pedipalp of trachelas the legs are not those

characteristic of crab-spiders; and they differ from the Thomi-
sidae in that the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is
distinct and armed with teeth. From the preceding family, the
Ctenidae, thev differ in the arrangement of the eves and in thai

>}/

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the truncate end of the endite is furnished with a band of hairs
(Fig. 627) instead of being entirely clothed with very dense
uneven hairs.

The tarsi are usually furnished with bundles of terminal
tenent hairs (Figs. 628 and 629). In most of our common light-

Fig. 628. TARSUS OF CLUBIONA

Fig. 629. TIP OF TARSUS OF CLUBIONA

Fig. 630. A TENENT HAIR FROM CLUBIONA

coloured species, these bundles, being dark in colour, form con-
spicuous cushions beneath the tarsi. These tenent hairs are
complicated in structure. Figure 6^0 represents one of them
from the tarsus of Clubiona.

There is a striking similarity in appearance between many
of the clubionids and certain drassids; but the two families are

558

Superfamily Argiopoidea

easily separated by the fact that in the clubionids the fore spin-
nerets are contiguous, while in the drassids they are widely
separated.

The Clubionidae includes five subfamilies, all of which are
represented in our fauna. The first of these subfamilies, the
Anvphaeninae, is sharply distinguished from the others by the
position of the furrow of the posterior spiracle. In the case of
the other subfamilies the differences between them are such that
a key based upon them would not be as practicable for the de-
termination of specimens as a more artificial one, like the following:

TABLE OF SUBFAMILIES OF THE CLUBIONID/E

A. Furrow of the posterior spiracle remote from the spinnerets,
usually near the middle of the abdomen. P. 560.

Anyph^enin^e

AA. Furrow of the posterior spiracle situated near the spinnerets.

B. Tibiae of the first two pairs of legs with a definite double

series of long spines on the lower side, in which there

are more than two spines in each row. P. 571.

LlOCRANIN/t

BB. Tibiae of the first two pairs of legs without a definite
double series of long, movable spines consisting of more
than two spines in each row.
C. First pair of legs not longer than the fourth pair;
legs either with or without spines.
D. Spines fairly numerous on the legs.

E. Anterior median eyes scarcely the diameter of one

of them from the front margin of the clypeus.

F. Labium wider than long; cephalothorax mottled

with brown. P. 571. Liocranin/e

FF. Labium longer than wide; cephalothorax not

mottled (Clubiona). P. 565 Cllbiomn.e

EE. Anterior median eves several times the diameter

of one of them from the front margin of the

clypeus (Castianeira) . P. 577. Micariin.v

DD. Legs not armed with spines or with only a few

under the tibiae of the first pair.

E. Median furrow of the thorax wanting or faintly

indicated; endites slightly depressed in the

middle (M icarid). P. 377. Mi< vriin/e

559

Superfamily Argiopoidea

EE. Median furrow of the thorax distinct; endites

not depressed in the middle. P. 580. Corinnin^

CC. First pair of legs plainly longer than the fourth pair.

D. Legs armed with spines (Chiracantbium). P. 565.

CLUBIONINy'E

DD. Legs not armed with spines. P. 580. Corinnin>e

Subfamily ANYPH/ENIN/E (A-nyph-ae-ni'nae)

This subfamily is sharply distinguished
from all other Clubi-
onids by the position of
the furrow of the poste-
rior spiracle, which is re-
mote from the spin-
nerets, usually near the
middle of the abdomen
(Fig. 631). The tufts of
terminal tenent hairs of
the tarsi consist of a
double series of lamel-
liform hairs; in the other
subfamilies the terminal
tenent hairs are broom-
shaped.
Some writers separate this subfamily from the Clubionidae,

regarding it as a distinct family, the Anyphaenidae.

Only two genera are represented in our fauna; these can be

separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE ANYPH/^NIN/E

A. Furrow of the posterior spiracle at or before the middle of

abdomen; anterior median eyes equal in size to the

anterior lateral eyes or nearly so. P. 560. AnypH/£na

AA. Furrow of the posterior spiracle behind the middle of the

abdomen; anterior median eyes smaller than the anterior

lateral eyes. P. 562. '.*. Gayenna

Fig. 631.

VENTRAL ASPECT OF ABDOMEN

a, Anyplioena b, Gayenna

Genus ANYPH/ENA (An-y-phae'na)

The furrow of the posterior spiracle is situated in the middle
or before the middle of the abdomen, sometimes quite near to

560

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the epigastric furrow. The anterior median eyes are equal in
size to the anterior lateral eyes or nearly so.

The species of Anyphccna resemble those of Clubiona in habits,
living in silken tubes in rolled leaves on high herbs or shrubs.
The genus includes many species, eleven of which are found
in our fauna; nearly all of these are restricted to the southern
portions of our territory; a single species, A. gracilis, is found
in the North, and this lives also in the South, where I found it
the most common species.

Anyphccna gracilis (A. gra'ci-lis).— - The two sexes of this
species resemble each other in size and colour. The body is one

third inch ora little more in length,
the cephalothorax is darker than
the abdomen; in the more distinctly
marked individuals there are two
longitudinal bands on the cepha-

The colour is pale yellow;

Fig. 632.
EPIGYNUM OF AXYI'ILKXA GRACILIS

Fig. 633.
PALPUS OF MALE OF
AXYI'H.KXA GRACILIS

lothorax; and on the abdomen two longitudinal series of
gray spots irregularly placed, and scattered spots on the sides.
The furrow of the posterior spiracle is quite near the epigastric
furrow (Fig. 631, a).

The epigynum is of the form shown in Fig. 632. The tibia
of the palpus of the male bears a long apophysis at the tip. on
the outer lower side, which is more or less notched at the end,
and overlaps the tarsus (Fig. 633). The embolus is long, and, in
the unexpanded bulb, curves back to the base of the alveolus,

561

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and then down and forward, so that the tip rests in the apex
of the alveolus, near the tip of the tarsus.

Genus GAYENNA (Ga-y-en'na)

The spiders of this genus are closely allied to Anyphccna,
from which our species differ in having the anterior middle eyes
smaller than the anterior lateral eyes and in having the furrow
of the posterior spiracle behind the middle of the venter (Fig.

631, 6).

Nine species are listed from our fauna, of which the three
following are the more widely distributed :

These three species resemble each other quite closely in size
and markings. The body is from one eighth to one fifth inch
in length. The colour is pale yellow or white, with two broken
gray stripes on the cephalothorax, and two longitudinal rows of
gray spots on the abdomen; there are also similar spots on the
sides of the abdomen. The only practicable way of separating
these species is by the characteristics of the secondary sexual
organs, the epigyna and the palpi of the males. The following
table will aid in recognizing the distinctive features of these:

TABLE OF OUR COMMON SPECIES OF GAYENNA

A. Males.

B. Tibia of palpus about three times as long as the patella;

apophysis of tibia apparently arising before the middle

of its length. G. saltabunda

BB. Tibia of palpus not greatly elongate; principal apophyses

terminal.

C. Terminal apophyses of tibia short; the coxae of the third

and fourth legs with small apophyses on the lower

side. G. pectorosa

CC. Terminal apophyses of tibia long; the coxae of the third

and fourth legs without apophyses below. G. celer

AA. Females.

B. Epigynum longer than wide. G. celer

BB. Epigynum wider than long.

C. Posterior edge of the epigastrium prolonged behind
over the epigastric furrow into a plate, which is
lobed on each side, and which extends to the lung-

562

Superfamily Argiopoidea

slits; the posterior edge of this plate is densely

chitinized. Epigynum with a single round object

behind on the middle line. G. pedorosa

CC. Posterior edge of the epigastrium not so prominently

prolonged behind. Epigynum with two oval objects

behind. G. saltabunda

Gayenna celer (G. ce'ler).— - The epigynum (Fig. 634) is
longer than wide. The central part of it consists of three sclerites;
a transverse one in front; an intermediate one, which is narrower
and longer, and tapered toward its hind end; and a smaller one
behind. The first two of these sclerites are dark in colour; the
third is light. On each side of this series of sclerites, there is a
curved one, which is enlarged behind and tapered in front.

The palpus of the male of this species resembles that of G.
pedorosa in that the tibia is not greatly elongate; but it differs
in that the terminal apophyses are comparatively long (Fig. 635).

Gayenna pedorosa (G. pec-to-ro'sa). — The epigynum (Fig.
636) is wider than long. There is a single, round object behind,
on each side of which there is a curved sclerite. The most striking
feature of this region is the fact that the posterior edge of the
epigastrium is prolonged behind over the epigastric furrow into
a plate, which is lobed on each side, and which extends to the
lung-slits; the posterior edge of this plate is densely chitinized.

In this and in the following species the tibia of the palpus
of the male is not greatly elongate. In this species the terminal
apophyses of the tibia are comparatively short (Fig. 637). There
are two apophyses on the lower side of the coxa of the third leg,
and one on the lower side of the coxa of the fourth leg.

Gayenna saltabunda (G. sal-ta-bun'da). — The epigynum
(Fig. 638) is wider than long. It is sharply distinguished from
that of G. pedorosa by the presence of two oval objects, behind,
on the middle line. The posterior edge of the epigastrium bears
some resemblance to that of G. pedorosa; but it is not so distinctly
prolonged behind into a plate with a chitinized edge.

The male differs from the males of the other two common
species in the greater length of the tibia of the palpus (Fig. 630 1,
which is about three times as long as the patella. The terminal
apophysis of the tibia appears to arise before the middle of the
length of the tibia; this is due to the fact that it is situated at

563

Fig. 634.
EPIGYNUM OF GAYENNA CELER

■>■->':

rf.iM^

,0im^-

Fig. 636.
fEPIGYNUM OF GAYENNA PECTOROSA

Fig. 635. PALPUS OF MALE
OF GAYENNA CELER

Fig. 637. PALPUS OF MALE
OF GAYENNA PECTOROSA

Fig. 639.

PALPUS OF MALE

OF GAYENNA

SALTABUNDA

Fig. 638. EPIGYNUM OF GAYENNA SALTABUNDA

564

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the base of a very deep notch in the terminal margin of the seg-
ment.

Subfamily CLUBIONIN^E (Clu-bi-on-i'nae)

In this and in the following subfamily the last segment of
the hind spinnerets is quite distinct and conical. In this sub-
family the labium is much longer than wide, and extends beyond
the middle of the endites. The endites are narrower at the middle
than at the apex, and are margined on the inside with incurved,
very long hairs.

Only two genera are represented in our fauna.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE CLUBIONIN/E

A. Posterior legs longer than the anterior legs; tibiae and meta-
tarsi of the first two pairs of legs armed beneath with
paired spines. P. 565. Clubiona

AA. Anterior legs longer than the posterior legs; anterior legs
armed with but few spines, and these are not paired. P. 569.

Chiracanthhm

Genus CLUBIONA (Clu-bi-o'na)

The median furrow of the thorax is present. The posterior
eyes are equidistant or the median eyes are farther from each
other than from the lateral eyes. The lower margin of the furrow
of the chelicerae is usually armed with two teeth, but sometimes
with three, four or five. The posterior legs are longer than the
anterior. The tibiae and metatarsi of the first two pairs of legs
are armed beneath with paired spines; there are one or two
pairs, usually two, beneath the tibia, and a single pair beneath
the metatarsus of each of these legs.

The spiders of this genus are of medium or of small size;
they are pale or tawny; the abdomen is clothed with white or
pale yellow pubescence, with a silky reflection; most of them are
without markings, but some have the abdomen ornamented either
with a median line or with a series of chevrons.

These spiders live in silken tubes which they spin under bark
or stones or in rolled leaves; these tubes have two openings, and
adhere to the object to which they are attached.

This is a very large genus; seventeen species arc known

565

Superfamily Argiopoidea

to occur in our fauna, and there are doubtless others which are
as yet undescribed.

The six species described below are our more common ones;
the following table will aid in separating these:

TABLE OF OUR MORE COMMON SPECIES OF CLUBIONA

A. Small species; body from one sixth to one fifth inch in
length. P. 566. C. abbotii

AA. Larger species; body from one fourth to one half inch in
length.

Abdomen with distinct dark spots or bands.

C. Abdomen with an almost continuous median band.

broken into spots behind; on each side of this a

white or yellow band with irregular edges; sides of

abdomen with oblique stripes. P. 567. C. riparia

CC. Abdomen with a median series of spots, which are

either arched or double behind; sides of abdomen

marked with spots instead of oblique bands. P. 567.

C. pallens

BB. Abdomen not marked with distinct dark spots or bands.

C. Abdomen dark, with brown irregular lines. P. 567.

C. canadensis
CC. Abdomen pale.

D. Apophysis of tibia of male very wide. P. 569.

C. tibialis
DD. Apophysis of tibia of male narrower. P. 567.

C. obesa

Clubiona abbotii (C. ab-bot'i-i). — This is the smallest of
our common species, measuring only from one sixth to one fifth
inch in length. The cephalothorax is light yellowish brown.
The ground colour of the abdomen is lighter than the cephalo-
thorax; but there is a reddish brown lanceolate median stripe
on the basal part; and the hind part is mottled with reddish
brown. The space between the posterior median eyes is nearly
twice as great as that between one of them and the posterior
lateral eye of the same side. The epigynum (Fig. 640) is pointed
behind, with a notch in the middle; and at some distance in front
of it two dark objects, probably the glands of the spermathecae,

566

Superfamily Argiopoidea

show through the skin. The tibia of the palpus of the male-
bears, on the outside, a very large apophysis, which varies in
size and length in different individuals (Fig. 641).

Clubiona riparia (C. ri-pa'ri-a). — This species is easily
recognized by the markings of the abdomen (Fig. 642). There
is a dark, median, longitudinal stripe, which is narrowed behind
and is often broken into a series of spots on the hind half of the
abdomen. On each side of this median stripe there is a white
or yellow band, with irregular edges. The sides of the abdomen
are brown, and are crossed by oblique alternating, light and dark
bands of this colour. On the venter, a light median band extends
from the epigastric furrow to the spinnerets.

This species makes an interesting provision for the protection
of its egg-sac. A leaf of a broad-leaved grass, which grows in
marshy places, is folded in the manner shown in Fig. 643.
The long three-sided chamber thus formed is lined with silk
and contains both the egg-sac and the spider that made it, thus
serving as a nursery for the spiderlings and a coffin for the parent.
Similar nests are made by folding the leaves of the cat-tail flag.

Clubiona pallens (C. pal'lens).— - This is a well-marked
species, which can be distinguished from our other common
species by the markings of the abdomen (Fig. 644). On the basal
half of the abdomen there is a median band, which is distinct
in some individuals, and faintly indicated in others. Behind this
band, and extending to the tip of the abdomen, there is a series
of transverse, more or less arched, dark bars, some of which are
frequently broken, especially toward the tip of the abdomen, so as
to form a pair of spots. On each side of the abdomen there is a
series of oblique dark bands. The ground colour of the abdomen
is pale.

Clubiona canadensis (C. can-a-den'sis). — This species meas-
ures about one fourth inch in length. The abdomen is yellowish
brown, with many light dots, thickly and evenly distributed
over the entire surface. In some individuals there is a series of
chevrons on the hind half of the abdomen composed of a series
of these dots (Fig. 645). A darker lanceolate band on the basal
half of the abdomen is usually faintly indicated.

Clubiona obesa (C. o-be'sa). — The length of the body is
about one fourth inch. The entire body is pale and almost
without markings. On the basal half of the abdomen there

*&'

567

*<2

Fig. 640.
EPIGYNUM OF CLUBIONA ABBOTII

* O 3 •

Fig. 641.

OUTER FACE

OF PALPUS

OF MALE

CLUBIONA

ABBOTII

Fig. 643.

NEST ENCLOSING

EGG-SAC

OF CLUBIONA

RIPARIA

Fig. 642. CLUBIONA RIPARIA

f Hi

Fig. 644. CLUBIONA PALLENS

Fig. 645- CLUBIONA CANADENSIS
568

Superfamily Argiopoidea

is a median, longitudinal stripe, which sometimes is only faintly
indicated. The females of this and the following species resemble
each other closely. The males can be distinguished by the form
of the apophysis borne by the tibia of the palpus. In this species
this apophysis is of the form shown in Fig. 646.

Fig. 646.
OUTER FACE OF PALPUS
OF CLUBIOXA OBESA

Fig. 647.
OUTER FACE OF PALPUS
OF CLUBIOXA TIBIALIS

Chibiona tibialis (C. tib-i-a'lis). — This species is of the same
size and colour as the preceding. In the case of the females, the
differences between the two species have not been determined.
The male of this species can be distinguished by the form of the
apophysis of the tibia of the palpus (Fig. 647).

Genus CHIRACANTH1UM (Chir-a-can'thi-um)

The cephalothorax is somewhat convex and lacks the median
furrow of the thorax. The posterior median eyes are farther
from the lateral eyes than from each other. The lower margin
of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with two or three teeth,
which are situated some distance from the base of the claw.
The anterior legs are longer than the posterior; and the first two
pairs of legs are armed with but few and not paired spines.

In colouration these spiders resemble Chibiona, and have
similar habits, living in silken tubes. Although this is a large
genus, only two species have been found in the United States.

Chiracantbium inclusion (C. in-clu'sum). — This species
measures about one third inch in length. The colour in life is
greenish white, with the chelicerze brown. The cephalothorax

569

Superfamily Argiopoidea

is a little darker than the abdomen. There is on the abdomen

a faintly indicated, median, longitudinal band.

The guide of the epigynum is a large nearly circular plate

which nearly fills the cavity of the epigynum (Fig. 648). On

the outer face of the palpus of the male there is a slender, curved

apophysis extending from the
tip of the tibia toward the
cymbium, and a slightly larger
pointed apophysis extending
backward from the cymbium
(Fig. 649).

This is a common and
very widely distributed spe-
cies, occurring both in the

■>r'i

^'-3HBssaa&)s

Fig. 648.

EPIGYNUM OF CHIRACANTHIUM

INCLUSUM

Fig. 649. OUTER FACE OF TIBIA
OF CHIRACANTHIUM INCLUSUM

Fig. 650. NEST OF CHIRACANTHIUM
INCLUSUM

North and in the South. Hentz, who first described it, states
that "This spider was always found in tubes of white silk, the
female watching her cocoon, which is covered with a very thin
coat of silk; the eggs are loose and not glued together. It
probably moves out only at night, as its pale colour indicates.
The young are deeper in colour even than the mother."

On one occasion (this was on the edge of the Everglades,

570

Superfamily Argiopoidea

near Miami, Fla.), I found an adult female in a nest, made near
the top of a dead, finely branching herb. The nest was a tube
with compact walls formed by closely weaving together the fine
branches of the herb (Fig. 650).

Chiracantbium albens (C. al'bens). — I have not seen this
species. The following is the original description of it by Hentz,
who found it in Alabama:

" Pale bristly; abdomen deeper in colour, venter with its base
and three spots, pale green ; pectus with a line each side, pale green ;
nipples, four long ones and two short. Feet, very long and
slender, 1, 4, 2, 3. First much the longest."

Subfamily LIOCRANINiE (Li-o-cra-ni'nae)

In this subfamily the tibiae and metatarsi of the first two
pairs of legs are armed, on the lower side, with a definite double
series of long spines; usually there are more than two pairs of
these spines under each of these tibiae. As in the preceding sub-
family, the last segment of the hind spinnerets is distinct and
conical; but in this subfamily the labium is not at all or barely
longer than wide, and does not extend beyond the middle of the
endites. The endites are not narrower in the middle than at the
end.

One half of the genera of clubionids represented in our fauna
belong to this subfamily. Our genera can be separated as follows:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE LIOCRANIN^

A. Tibiae of the first two pairs of legs with a double series of

long spines, in which there are more than two spines in

each row.

B. Sternum large and prolonged behind between the posterior

coxae; anterior row of eyes procurved; all tarsi lacking

scopulae, but furnished under the claws with very small

bundles of from six to ten tenent hairs. P. 576.

Phrurolithus
BB. Sternum normal, not prolonged behind between the
posterior coxae, which are nearly contiguous; anterior
row of eyes straight or recurved ; tarsi, at least the anterior
ones, furnished with scopulae.
C. Claws of posterior tarsi not accompanied by large bun-
dles of tenent hairs.

571

Superfamily Argiopoidea

D. Posterior tarsi with two long, spatulate tenent
hairs beneath the claws. P. 574. Apostenus
DD. Posterior tarsi without tenent hairs. P. 575.

LlOCRANOIDES

CC. All tarsi with bundles of tenent hairs accompanying

the claws.

D. Tibiae and metatarsi of the anterior legs armed

below with a few weak not elevated, spines;

only three pairs of spines under each of these

tibiae. P. 572. Syspira

DD. Tibiae and metatarsi of the anterior legs armed below

with many, very long spines, and a few elevated ones;

at least five pairs of spines under each of these tibiae.

E. Posterior row of eyes slightly procurved. P. 573.

Chemmis
EE. Posterior row of eyes strongly recurved. P. 573.

Zora

AA. Tibiae of the first two pairs of legs with only two pairs of

paired spines below.

B. Anterior row of eyes procurved. P. 574. Agrceca

BB. Anterior row of eyes recurved. P. 575. Hilke

Genus SYSPIRA (Sys-pi'ra)

In this genus the tibiae and metatarsi of the anterior legs are
armed below with a few weak, not elevated, spines; and the
apical segment of the hind spinnerets is moderately long and
subacuminate. The posterior row of eyes is recurved; and the
lateral eyes of each side are close together.

Only a few representatives of this genus are known; two
have been described by Simon from Lower California, and one
by Banks from New Mexico.

Syspira pallida (S. pal'li-da). — Only an immature specimen
has been described. This measured one half inch in length.
The cephalothorax is pale yellow, with a brown mark on each side
on the anterior furrows, and fainter ones on other furrows; the
abdomen is gray. There are three pairs of spines under the
tibiae of the first and second legs.

The specimen described was found in a hole in the ground
at Mesilla Park, N. Mex.

572

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus ZORA (Zo'ra)

The tibiae and metatarsi of the anterior legs are armed
below with many very long spines and a few elevated ones; the
apical segment of the hind spinnerets is short and indistinct;
the posterior row of eyes is strongly recurved.

Zora includes small spiders with a yellow or whitish integu-
ment ornamented with longitudinal bands or with small spots
usually in series; their legs are thick, the two first pairs are often
in part black or brown. They live in moss and detritus; they
only rarely climb on plants, and they spin neither a tube nor
a web. (Simon.)

Only one species is reported from this
country.

Zora pumilus (Z. pu'mi-lus). — 1 have not
seen this species and can only copy the de-
scription and figure given by Hentz, who first
described it; no later description of it has been
published. In that part of the figure (Fig.
651) showing the arrangement of the eyes, the
posterior row is the upper one:

"Livid, testaceous; cephalothorax with
two longitudinal bands near the middle, and
two curved fillets near the edge, fuscous;
abdomen with a line bifurcated anteriorly on
the middle, and two lines of minute dots on the
sides, fuscous; same colour underneath, with minute fuscous dots. "

This is the Katadysas pumilus of Hentz. It was found by
him under stones in North Alabama.

Fig. 651.

ZORA PUMILUS

(after Hentz)

Genus CHEMMIS (Chem'mis)

The tarsi of all of the legs are lightly scopulate; and all
are furnished with tufts of terminal tenent hairs. There are five
pairs of spines beneath the tibia of the first legs. The posterior
row of eyes is slightly procurved. There is a conical chitinous
cusp in front of the spinnerets.

Only a single species of this genus has been found in the
United States; this was described from Arizona. Another species
is known from Central America.

573

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Chemmis unicolor (C. u-ni-co'lor). — Only the female of this
species is known. It measures a little more than one half inch
in length. The cephalothorax is reddish brown; the abdomen,
pale brown, darkest near the tip. The anterior median eyes are
about the same size as the anterior lateral eyes. The lower
margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with three teeth.

Genus APOSTENUS (A-pos'te-nus)

In this and in the three following genera the claws of the
posterior tarsi are not covered with bundles of spatulate or
truncate hairs; but in this genus there are two long, spatulate
hairs beneath the claws. The posterior row of eyes is slightly
recurved; and the anterior median eyes are smaller than the
anterior lateral eyes.

There are only two described American species. One of
these, A. cinctipes, was described by Mr. Banks from a single
specimen taken at Olympia, Wash.; the male of the other,
A. acutus, was recently described by Mr. Emerton ('09) from
specimens taken in Connecticut and on Long Island. In each
case the spiders are about one sixth inch in length.

Genus AG RCECA (A-groe'ca)

This genus is closely allied to Apostenus but differs in lacking
the two spatulate hairs beneath the claws of the hind tarsi and
in having both rows of eyes procurved. The eyes of the anterior
row are close together; those of the second row are more widely
spaced.

Only two, or perhaps three, American species are known.
One of the supposed species, A. ornata, is believed by Emerton
to be the same as A. pratensis.

Agrceca pratensis (A. pra-ten'sis). — This spider is about
one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax is widest and
highest behind the middle, the head a little more than half as
wide as the thorax; the abdomen is widest across the hinder
third and not much pointed behind. The cephalothorax is light
brownish yellow; it has a narrow dark edge on each side and a row
of radiating dark lines each side forming two broken dark longi-
tudinal bands. The abdomen has two rows of gray oblique
markings on a light ground.

574

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Emerton, who described this species, states that it lives
under leaves and in short grass and resembles a Lycosa in its
gait and general appearance. It was described from specimens
taken in the Eastern and Middle States.

Agraca m inula (A. mi-nu'ta).— This is a small species
measuring less than one sixth inch in length. 'The epigynum
is divided by a slender median piece which is contracted in the
middle and expanded somewhat before the tip; the tip rests in a
short furrow; each side of the median piece is a curved reddish
body." "Easily separated from either of the other forms by
its small size, banded posterior legs, and peculiar epigynum."
(Banks.)

This species was described from specimens taken under leaves
in a damp woods on Long Island, N. Y.

Genus LIOCRANOIDES (Li-o-cra-noi'des)

Both rows of eyes are recurved; and all of the eyes are nearly
equal in size; the anterior median eyes are farther from the lateral
eyes than from each other; the posterior eyes are nearly equi-
distant from each other; the clypeus is not wider than the anterior
median eyes.

Only a single species is known; this is found in the Mammoth
Cave in Kentucky.

Liocranoides unicolor (L. u-ni-co'lor).— - The female measures
a little more than one fifth inch in length. The cephalothorax
is light yellow and the abdomen light gray in colour.

Genus 11II.KF. (llil'ke)

The anterior row of eyes is slightly recurved; the posterior
row is nearly straight, slightly procurved. The anterior tibiae
are armed below with two or three pairs of spines, and the meta-
tarsi with two pairs.

There is only a single known species; this occurs in Cali-
fornia.

Hilke trivitiata (II. tri-vit-ta'ta).— -The female measures
nearly one third inch in length. The cephalothorax is dark
yellow. The abdomen is gray, with three light longitudinal
bands, which are more or less united behind.

575

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus PHRUROLITHUS (Phru-rol'i-thus)

The sternum is large and prolonged behind between the pos-
terior coxae; the anterior row of eyes is procurved; all of the tarsi
lack scopulae, but are furnished under the claws with very small
bundles of from six to ten spatulate hairs; the tibia and meta-
tarsus of the first two pairs of legs are armed, on the underside,
with a double row of strong spines.

These are small spiders, varying from one twelfth to one

fifth inch in length, which live under stones and among moss or

short grass, and are very active. They are

sometimes ornamented with bright markings

and iridescent scales.

Eight species have been described from
the United States; of these
several are common. The

jg§s£S?

Fig. 652.

PHRUROLITHUS

ALARIUS

Fig. 653.

EPIGYNUM OF PHRUROLITHUS

ALARIUS

Fig. 654. PALPUS
OF PHRUROLI-
THUS ALARIUS

males of the different species can be separated by the variations
in form of the apophyses of the tibia of the palpus; the females,
by the form of the epigynum. The following is our most
common species.

Phrurolithus alarms (P. a-Ia'ri-us). — The male measures
one eighth inch in length; the female, nearly one sixth. The
cephalothorax is light yellowish, with a narrow black marginal
line, and two light gray stripes. The abdomen is gray, with
several light transverse bands or chevrons, which vary in size
and shape; it is clothed with iridescent scales. The first and

576

Superfamily Argiopoidea

second pairs of legs are stouter than the others. The tibiae of the
first pair are very conspicuous, being black except the tip, which
is of a strongly contrasting white (Fig. 652). The form of the
epigynum is shown by Fig. 653; and that of the tibial apophysis
of the male palpus by Fig. 654.

The egg-sac of this species is often found attached to the
lower surface of a stone or of a piece of wood lying on the ground.
It is closely applied to the supporting object, flat, circular in
outline, and bright red in colour.

Subfamily MICARIINiE (Mi-ca-ri-i'nae)

In this and in the following subfamily the last segment of
the hind spinnerets is very short, frequently indistinct, and
subspherical. In this subfamily the apex of the endites is sub-
quadrate, forming an angle on the outside; the tarsi of the anterior
legs are long; and the sternum is not at all or barely margined.

Only two genera are represented in our fauna.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE MICARIIN/E

A. Median furrow of the thorax well-marked; lower margin of
the furrow of the chelicerae armed with two small teeth;
tibiae of the first two pairs of legs beneath with two pairs
of spines. P. 577. Castianeira

AA. Median furrow of the thorax wanting or faintly indicated;
lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae armed with one
very small tooth; anterior legs usually unarmed. P. 580.

MlCARIA

Genus CASTIANEIRA (Cas-ti-a-nei'ra)

In this genus the cephalothorax is ovate, quite convex, and
provided with a well-marked median furrow. The lower margin
of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with two small teeth.
The body is clothed with plumose hairs, more or less scattered,
and often brightly coloured. The tibia of the anterior legs is armed
beneath with two or three pairs of spines.

These spiders are of medium size, brown or black in colour,
with the abdomen ringed or otherwise marked with white or some
other bright colour. As these markings are often due to the colour

577

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Fig. 6ss- CASTIANEIRA CINGULATA

Fig, 65b. CASTIANEIRA DESCRIPTA

of hairs, which are easily
rubbed off, it is frequently
difficult to determine the
species by their mark-
ings. About a score of
species occur in our fauna,
of which the following are
the more common :

Castmneira cingulata
(C. cin-gu-la'ta). — This
species is easily distin-
guished by the fact that
thefemora of all of the legs
are striped with black.
The male is about one
fourth inch in length; the
female, one third. The
body is dark brown in
colour, with two white
transverse bands on the
abdomen; one of these
is near the middle; and
the other is between this
and the base of the ab-
domen (Fig. 655).

This very active spi-
der lives under stones and
leaves on the ground.

Castianeira descripta
(C. des-crip'ta). — The
male measures nearly one
third inch in length; the
female, from one third to
two fifths inch. The body
is black, with or without
red markings on the ab-
domen. In well-marked
individuals there is a basal
spot on the abdomen, one
near the middle, and a

578

Superfamily Argiopoidea

series of spots or a band near the tip; but frequently some or all
of these spots are wanting (Fig. 656).

This spider is common under stones in pastures. Its egg-
sac (Fig. 657) is often seen attached to stones in pastures.

„ A

9*~ ■;

M' ■ -'■'

^^N^^_

■4' f

WK^.-

*** • > ,

'v.

toif?ft liiV Tm'i ■■hT

■M

„ 1

Fig. 657. EGG-SACS OF CASTIANEIRA DESCRIPTA

It is parchment-like and has
a metallic lustre. A spider
which I had in confinement
made its egg-sac August 5th.
And egg-sacs which I opened
September 19th were filled
with spiderlings.

Castianeira longipalpus (C.
lon-gi-pal'pus). — The body of
the male is one fourth inch or
more in length; that of the
female about one third inch.
The cephalothorax is light
brown; the abdomen is dark
with several transverse white
stripes (Fig. 658). The num-
ber of these stripes varies in
different individuals. There

658.

CASTIAXF.1RA LONGIPALPULS, MALE

579

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are usually some near the tip of the abdomen, not shown
in the figure.

In the banding of the abdomen this species bears more or
less resemblance to Castianeira cingulata; but the two species
are easily separated by the fact that in this species the legs are
banded with black, while in C. cingulata they are striped.

In habits this species resembles the two described above.
Figure 658 is from a photograph of an individual that had lost
when young two of its legs, the left front and the right hind one,
and these legs were being reproduced.

Genus MICAR1A (Mi-ca'ri-a)

The members of this genus are small slender spiders, in which
the median furrow of the thorax is wanting or faintly indicated,
and in which the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae
is armed with only one small tooth. The endites are slightly
depressed in the middle. The abdomen, and usually the cephalo-
thorax also, is covered with flattened scales, which are sometimes
brightly coloured and iridescent. The anterior legs are usually
not armed with spines.

These are exceedingly active spiders, which are found in dry
and sandy places, where they hunt their prey, even in the hottest
part of the day. Thirteen species have been described from our
fauna, of which the following is the most common.

Micaria longipes (M. lon'gi-pes). — This species measures
from one fifth to one fourth inch in length. It is light yellow-
brown in colour, with gray hairs and scales, which have, on the
abdomen, green and red metallic reflections. The abdomen
is slightly constricted in the middle of its length, and opposite
this constriction there is on each side a white bar; these give the
spider a more or less ant-like appearance. At the front end of the
abdomen there is another pair of less distinct white bars.

Subfamily CORINNINiE (Cor-in-ni'nae)

In this and in the preceding subfamily the last segment of
the hind spinnerets is very short, frequently indistinct, and sub-
spherical. In this subfamily the median furrow of the tho-
rax is distinct; the apex of the endites is rounded, not at all

580

Superfamily Argiopoidea

angulate on the outside (Fig. 659), and not depressed in the middle;
the tarsi of the anterior legs are not unusually long; and the ster-
num is distinctly margined.

Only two genera are represented in our fauna.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE CORINNINy€

A. Posterior row of eyes strongly recurved. P. 581. Trachelas
AA. Posterior row of eyes straight. P. 582. Meriola

Genus TRACHELAS (Tra-che'Ias)

In this genus the legs are not armed with spines or with
only a few under the tibia of the first pair, and the posterior
row of eyes is strongly recurved. Only two species have been

FiR. 6sq.
PEDIPALP OF TRACHELAS

Fig. 660.
TRACHELAS TRANQUILLA. FEMALE

found in our fauna; one of these, T. californica, is known only
from California; the following one is common and widely dis-
tributed.

Trachelas tranquilla (T. tran-quil'la).— The male measures
one fifth inch <>r more in length: the female about two fifths
inch. The cephalothorax and chelicerae are dark brown in colour;
the abdomen is light yellow without markings, except that the

581

Superfamily Argiopoidea

four muscle impressions are brown, and there is a darkish median
stripe on the basal half (Fig. 660). The first and second pairs
of legs are stouter, and usually darker than the other two pairs.
This common species is found in dry and warm places, at the
base of plants or under stones or leaves, sometimes on fences.

Genus MERIOLA (Me-ri'o-la)

In this genus as in Trachelas the legs are not armed with
spines or bear a few under the tibia of the first pair; but this genus
is distinguished from Trachelas by having the posterior row of
eyes straight.

Only two species have been described: one of these, M. inor-
nata, is from New Mexico; the following one is found in the East.

Meriola decepta (M. de-cep'ta).— - This species appears like
a miniature of Trachelas tranquilla, resembling that species in form,
colour, and the proportions of its legs; the adult female, however,
is only one sixth inch in length; the male has not been described.

Mr. Banks, who described the species, found it on the ground
in an old meadow; the specimens in my collection were obtained
by sifting.

Family AGELENIDiE (Ag-e-len'i-dae)

The Funnel-web Spiders

These are three-clawed, almost always eight-eyed, sedentary
spiders. They differ from the Clubionidae in the number of tarsal
claws and in lacking scopulae on the tarsi; and from the two
following families in not having the trochanters notched. The
eyes may be either silvery white or dark or both types may be
present; usually the anterior median eyes are silvery white, the
others dark; the eyes are in two rows. The hind spinnerets
are very long (Fig. 661).

The members of this family spin sheet-like webs, which are
usually furnished with a tubular retreat; this suggests the common
name funnel-web spiders for the family. The web of the grass-
spider, an exceedingly common species, is a good illustration
(Fig. 662); this is described in detail on a later page.

To this family belongs the remarkable aquatic spider, Argyro-
neta aquatica, of Europe, the habits of which have been described

582

Superfamily Argiopoidea

by many writers. This spider lives among plants at the bottom
of clear and quiet ponds; but it breathes air which it brings
down from above the surface of the water adhering to its body.

Fig. 661. LATERAL ASPECT OF AGELENA

Fig. 662. WEB OF AGELENA N/EVIA

1 1 constructs a dome of silk among the plants at the bottom of the
pond or in a crevice of some kind or in an empty shell and fills
it with air; this air-filled dome serves as a home for the spider,
a nidus for its egg-sac, and a retreat for passing the winter.

This family is represented in our fauna by nine genera,
which can be separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE AGELENID^

A. Fore spinnerets contiguous, preceded by a colulus. P. 585.

Cyb/eus

583

Superfamily Argiopoidea

AA. Fore spinnerets separate, colulus wanting.

B. Fore spinnerets but little separate; hind spinnerets placed
behind the fore spinnerets and occupying only a little
wider space.
C. Hind spinnerets with the apical segment at least as
long as the basal segment; labium longer than wide;
posterior coxae contiguous.
D. Both rows of eyes very strongly procurved, so that
the anterior median eyes and the posterior lateral
eyes form nearly a straight line. P. 585. Agelena
DD. Both rows of eyes not at all or but slightly pro-
curved.
E. Anterior median eyes much larger than the
anterior lateral eyes. P. 592. Coras

EE. Anterior median eyes either smaller than the
anterior lateral eyes or of the same size.
F. Clypeus at least twice as wide as the anterior
eyes; chelicerae usually but slightly convex;
the lower margin of the furrow of the che-
licerae usually four-, five-, or six-toothed,
rarely three-toothed. P. 592. Tegenaria
FF. Clypeus scarcely wider than the anterior eyes;
chelicerae very strongly convex; the lower mar-
gin of the chelicerae usually only two- or three-
toothed. P. 593. Ccelotes
CC. Hind spinnerets with the apical segment much shorter
than the basal segment; labium nearly always as wide
as or wider than long; posterior coxae usually well sepa-
rated.
D. With only six eyes. P. 596. Chorizomma
DD. With eight eyes.

E. Clypeus much wider than the anterior lateral
eyes; anterior median eyes usually not much
smaller than the lateral eyes. P. 595.

Cicurina

EE. Clypeus not wider than the anterior lateral eyes;

anterior median eyes much smaller than the

lateral. P. 597. Cryphceca

BB. Fore spinnerets widely separate; all spinnerets in one

straight or curved line. P. 597. Hahnia

584

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus CYB/EUS (Cy-bae'us)

The genus Cybaeus is our only representative of a group of
genera that differ from other agelenids in having the fore spin-
nerets contiguous and preceded by a colulus. The hind spinnerets
consist each of a single segment and are not longer than the
fore spinnerets. The posterior eyes are in a straight or slightly
recurved row. The chelicerae are very robust and strongly convex
at the base.

Seven species of this genus have been described from the
United States; but I find no account of the habits of any of
them. The three known European species are found in the
forests of mountainous regions; and their webs, which are made
either in the cracks of trees or among stones, are composed of a
large and irregular mesh.

Of our seven species, one occurs in the East; the others are
found on the Pacific Coast.

Cybceus giganteus (C. gi-gan'te-us). — The length of the
body is nearly one half inch. The cephalothorax is a shining,
dark red-brown. The abdomen is covered with short black
hairs; the dorsum and sides are dark grayish black, with a short,
median, basal, light stripe, not reaching to the middle of the
dorsum, and on each side of this two oblique light spots.

This species has been found in New York and in North
Carolina.

Genus AG ELENA (Ag-e-le'na)

Both rows of eyes are strongly procurved, so much so that
the posterior lateral and the anterior median form nearly a
straight line (Fig. 663). The cephalothorax is narrow in front;
the labium is longer than wide; the pos-
terior coxae are contiguous; the apical
segment of the hind spinnerets is at least
as long as the basal segment; and the { q£
anterior tibiae are sparingly spined.

Four species of this genus have been
described from the United States; of these

\i .III \ \ VIA IA

the one described below is the most com-
mon; in fact it is the most common spider of our fauna. Two
other species are found on the West Coast and one in New .Mexico.

585

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The grass-spider, Agelena ncevia (A. nae'vi-a). — There is a
wide range in the variation of the size of this spider; adult males
occur that are less than one third inch in length while the full-
grown female may be three fourths of an inch or more in length.
There is also great variation in the general colour of the body,
ranging from light yellow with pale gray markings to dark reddish
brown, with black and gray spots. Figure 664 represents a
light-coloured, well-marked individual. There are two wide
longitudinal dark stripes extending the whole length of the

cephalothorax; there is
a light longitudinal me-
dian band extending the
length of the abdomen
and bordered on each side
with a dark band having
a light central stripe,
which is broken into a
series of spots on the hind
half of the abdomen.
*r FfBh ' ' his species is either

y j*'r\ a variable one in the form

of the palpi of the males
and in the form of the
epigynum of the females
or more than one species
have been confused under
this name. The most
striking variations in the
palpi of the males are
in the length of the em-
bolus and the form of the tip of it. Figures 665 and 666
illustrate two types of palpi, which differ greatly in these
respects.

The grass-spider is so-called because its webs are the most
common webs found on grass; it is an abundant species throughout
the United States, probably the most abundant species in our
fauna. Even the most careful observers seldom realize what
an immense number of webs of this spider are spun upon the grass
in the fields. But occasionally they are made visible in the early
morning by the dew which has condensed UDon them. At such

586

Fig. 664. AGELENA N.EVIA, FEMALE

Superfamily Argiopoiciea

times we may see the grass covered by an almost continuous
carpet of silk (Fig. 667).

The grass-spider lives only one year and passes the winter
in the egg state, the old spiders dying soon after oviposition
in the autumn. It is not till late in May in the North that the
small webs of the young spiders first become observable; and it
is much later in the season before they reach their full size. If
a spider is not disturbed, it occupies the same web throughout
the summer, extending it from time to time until it becomes
one foot or more across.

The webs of this spider vary greatly in form and in position;
but the typical form is a nearly horizontal, slightly concave
sheet, built near the surface of the ground in a grassy place

Fig. 665.
PALPUS OF MALI'. (>!■ AOKLEXA
X. KYI A Willi LONG EMBOLUS

Fig. 666.

PALPUS OF MALE OF AGELEXA

\ I A I A Willi SHORTER EMBOLUS

(Fig. 662); the web is firmly attached to the grass, and there
is an irregular open net-work of threads above the sheet sup-
ported by stalks of grass that extend above it. The object of
this net-work is probably to impede the flight of insects, causing
them to fall upon the sheet, where they can be seized by the
spider. One side of the sheet is continued into a tubular retreat,
which extends downward a greater or less distance, but it is
open below so that the spider can escape, by a back door as it
were, in an emergency.

587

Fig. 667.

(Photographed by P. B. Mann)
A LAWN COVERED WITK WEBS OF THE GRASS SPIDER

A u, ~ ' ;*

9 ,-.

//I/ ■: 1

. V ... < .

• *

Fig. 668. AN OLD WEB OF AGELENA N/EVIA

588

lig. 669. WEB Of AGELENA N.LY1A UN A SINGLE PLANT

589

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The spider waits for its prey in its retreat; as soon as an
insect alights or falls upon the sheet, the spider rushes forth to
seize it.

(Photographed by Glenn W. Berrick)
Fig. 670. FUNNEL-LIKE WEB OF AGELENA N^EVIA

The continued use of a web for several months, the spidei
spinning a drag-line in each of its trips over it, results in a constant
addition to the thickness of the sheet; but this addition is not

590

Superfamily Argiopoidea

made evenly, but in such a way as to produce a mesh-like struc-
ture (Fig. 668).

The agelenids differ from most web-building spiders in that
they do not hang from their webs, but run upon them with the
dorsal aspect of the body uppermost.

The grass-spider often makes its web in the angles of buildings
and frequently in elevated structures. It is also often found
upon shrubs or high herbs at a considerable distance from the
ground; in such cases the typical form may be greatly modified

Fig. 671. EGG-SACS OF AGELENA X.KVIA

(Fig. 669). Another striking modification of the typical form
is shown in Fig. 670; here the retreat was in a stump and the
entire sheet was funnel-like.

In the autumn the males wander in search of their mates;
and the females leave their webs to seek a suitable place for
building their egg-sacs.

The egt;-sacs are placed in secluded situations; they are
often found beneath loose bark on trees and stumps. They are
disk-like, closely applied to the supporting object, and are partlv

59'

Superfamily Argiopoidea

covered with bits of rotten wood or other debris (Fig. 671).
It is evident that the female remains near the egg-sac after it is
made; for one often finds dead individuals under bark with the

egg-sacs.

Genus CORAS (Co'ras)

The rows of eyes are not strongly procurved; and the anterior
median eyes are much larger than the anterior lateral. The
chelicerae are robust and strongly convex at the base; the lower
margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with three teeth.
The following is our only known species:
The medicinal spider, Coras medtcinalis (C. me-dic-i-na'lis). —
This is a gray spider measuring about one half inch in length.
It is stout and comparatively short-legged (Fig. 672). The cepha-

lothorax is yellowish brown,
darkest in front, marked with
radiating gray lines, which form
two longitudinal dark bands on
the thoracic part; on the head
part there are two shorter bands
which meet at the median fur-
row. The abdomen is gray,
marked with many irregular
pale spots.

This species lives in hollow
trees, in crevices among rocks
and in the angles of buildings.
It makes a sheet web with a
funnel-form retreat. The web
of this spider was formerly be-
lieved to be narcotic. Hentz,
who first described the species and proposed the name medi-
cinalis for it, states that "for some time the use of its web as
a narcotic in cases of fever was recommended by many physicians
in this country; but now it is probably seldom used."

Fig. 672.
CORAS MEDICINALIS, FEMALE

Genus TEGENARIA (Teg-e-na'ri-a)

The anterior row of eyes is slightly procurved or rarely
straight; the eyes of this row are either equal in size or the median

592

Superfamily Argiopoidea

eyes are smaller than the lateral eyes. The clypeus is at least
twice as wide as the anterior eyes. The chelicerae are usually
but slightly convex; and the lower margin of the furrow of the
chelicerae is usually armed with from four to six teeth, rarely
with only three.

Five species have been described from the United States;
three of these occur in the Far West; one, in caves in Indiana;
and the following is widely distributed.

Tegenaria derhami (T. der-ha'mi).— This is the best-known
representative of the genus. It is a domestic species which
inhabits the dwellings of man in all regions of the world from
the Arctic Zone to the Tropics. The female (Fig. 673) is two
fifths inch in length. The cephalothorax is light yellowish
brown with two gray longitudinal stripes. The abdomen is
pale with many irregular gray spots, of which there is a series,
more or less connected, forming a median band, and many along
each side. The markings of the male are similar to those of the
female, but the abdomen is smaller.

This species lives almost exclusively in cellars and neglected
buildings. Its web (Fig. 674) resembles in its more general
features that of the grass-spider; but as with that species varies
in form depending on its situation; sometimes instead of its being
a flat sheet, as shown in the figure, it is a deep, pocket-like sac.

Genus CCELOTES (Ccel'o-tes)

The clypeus is scarcely wider than the anterior eyes (Fig.
675). The chelicerae are very strongly convex and have the
lower margin of the furrow usually armed with only two or three
teeth.

The spiders of this genus are very closely allied to Tegenaria
but can be distinguished by the characters given above. Their
form is more thick-set, recalling that of Amaurobius; their cephalo-
thorax is thicker, with the head broad, narrowed but little if at
all and very convex; and the legs are shorter.

Very little has been published regarding the habits of -our
species of Coelotes. One is said to be common in woods and
another was frequently found in autumn and winter under leaves
(Banks '02). Simon states that the species of this genus live
in forests or in alpine prairies, where they are found under stones,

593

Fig. 673. TEGENARIA DERHAMI, FEMALE

Fig. 674. WEB OF TEGENARIA DERHAMI

594

Superfamily Argiopoidea

in moss, or more rarely under bark; that their web consists of
close white tissue, of the aspect of a long irregular ribband; and
that their cocoons are discoid, entangled in the tissue of the
web, and are often covered with particles of earth or of moss.

Eleven species are listed from our fauna; all of these are
from the eastern half of the United States.

Fig. 675.

HEAD AM) CHELICERjE

OF CCELOTES

m iH*i

Fig. 676.
EPIGYNUM OF CCELOTES FIDELIS

Fig. 677.
CCELOTES FIDELIS, MALE

Ccelotes fidelis (C. fi-de'lis). — This common species ran be
taken as an example of the species of this genus. The length
of the body is a little less than one half inch. The cephalothorax
is yellow-brown, with radiating dark bands; the abdomen is
nearly white, with many dark spots and lines. The form of the
epigynum of the female is shown by Fig. 676; and Fig. 677
represents the male.

Genus CICURINA (Cic-u-ri'na)

This and the two following genera differ from the preceding
genera in having the apical segment of the hind spinnerets much

595

Superfamily Argiopoidea

shorter than the basal segment; in having the labium nearly
always as wide as or wider than long; and in having the posterior
coxae, as a rule, well separated. In this genus the clypeus is
much wider than the anterior lateral eyes, and the anterior
median eyes are as a rule not much smaller than the lateral eyes.
All of the eyes are present.

The species are small, our more common ones measuring
from one fifth to one fourth inch in length. They are most
often found under dead leaves in
woods. Simon states that they
spin delicate horizontal webs
under stones or in the midst of
moss; and that the eggs are en-

. ■ .

Fig. 679.

PALPUS OF MALE OF CICURINA

ARCUATA

Fig. 67S.

EPIGYNUM OF CICURINA

ARCUATA

closed in a little white sac, which
is covered with bits of earth.

Nearly a dozen species have
been described from our fauna.

Cicurina arcuata (C. ar-cu-a'ta).— - This is our most common
species. It measures from one fifth to one quarter of an inch in
length. The colour is pale yellowish brown, lighter on the abdo-
men, which bears [faint gray markings. Figure 678 represents
the epigynum of the female, and Fig. 679 the palpus of the male.

Genus CHORIZOMMA (Cho-ri-zom'ma)

The spiders of this genus are closely allied to Cicurina but
differ in the possession of only six eyes. One species is found
in California and one in Lower California.

Choriiomma californica (C. cal-i-for'ni-ca). — Only the male
of this species has been described. This sex measures one fifth

596

Superfamily Argiopoidea

inch in length. It resembles a Tegenaria in colouration, the ab-
domen being marked with transverse, strongly recurved, black
stripes.

Genus CRYPHCECA (Cry-phce'ca)

The spiders of this genus agree with Cicurina in the form of
the hind spinnerets, of the labium, and in the number of the eyes;
but differ in that the clypeus is not wider than the anterior lateral
eyes, and in having the anterior median eyes much smaller than
the anterior lateral eyes (Fig. 680).

Only two species have been found in our fauna, one in New
England, and one in the State of Washington

Fig. 680. FACE OF CRYPHCECA Fig. 681. CRYPHCECA

MONTANA, FEMALE MONTANA, FEMALE

(after Emcrton) I Emcrton)

Cryphoeca montana (C. mon-ta'na) .— -This species has been
described recently by Emerton ('09) from specimens taken on
Mount Washington and elsewhere in New England. The male
is one sixth inch in length, the female, one eighth. The colours are
translucent white and gray; the cephalothorax has a narrow
black edge and broken, radiating, dark marks; the abdomen is
marked with a series of oblique light spots in pairs (Fig. 68i).

Cryphoeca peckhami (C. peck'ha-mi j -This species, which
is found in the State of Washington, closely resembles the pre-
ceding.

Genus HAHNIA (Hah'ni-a)

The spiders of this and the following genus are sharply dis-
tinguished by the arrangement of the spinnerets, which are in
a single transverse row (Fig. 682); the longer hind spinnerets
occupy the ends of the row, and the fore spinnerets are between

s<>7

Supcrfamily Argiopoidea

them and the middle spinnerets. The middle spinnerets consist
of a single segment each, the others of two, but the second seg-
ment of the fore spinnerets is very short. In the genus Hahnia
the anterior median eyes are smaller than the anterior lateral.
The posterior spiracle is large and is situated near the middle of
the venter of the abdomen.

These are small spiders which spin
delicate sheet-webs near the surface of the
ground; the webs are so delicate that they
attract attention only when covered with
dew; they are not furnished with a retreat.
1 have often found the webs stretched over
slight depressions in the bare ground of
Fig. 682. spinnerets country roads and of cultivated fields. In

the early morning while the webs are still
covered with dew the spiders are to be found under the webs.
I infer that they move to the upper surface when the web is dry.
The webs are also made among short and thin grass and moss.
And the spiders are frequently found under stones and leaves.
Only six of our species have been described; of these the
following are the more common.

Hahnia agilis (H. ag'i-lis).— - This species measures about
one eighth inch in length. The cephalothorax is bright orange-
brown and the abdomen is light gray with many irregular pale
spots. In the middle of the front half of the abdomen there are
two orange-coloured spots and behind these there are several pairs
of pale oblique spots.

This species occurs in the Eastern States.
Hahnia cinerea (H. ci-ne're-a).— This is a much smaller
species, measuring only about one twelfth inch in length. The
cephalothorax is brownish with dark radiating markings. The
abdomen is dark gray with scattered small white spots and a
double row of light spots in the middle followed by chevrons.
This species is found in the East.

Family PISAURIDiE (Pi-sau'ri-dae)

The Nursery-web Weavers

No more striking instance of maternal devotion is to be
found among spiders than that exhibited by the nursery-web

598

Superfamily Argiopoidea

weavers. From the time the egg-sac is made until the spiderlings
are ready to emerge, the mother carries about with her, wherever
she goes, this great silken ball with its load of eggs or of young.
The difficulty of doing this can be seen by a glance at the figure
of Pisaurina mini and her egg-sac (Fig. 683). The egg-sac is
held under the body; and is so large that the mother is forced
to run on the tips of her tarsi in order to hold the load clear of

Fig. 683. PISAURINA MIKA AND HER EGG-SAC

obstructions. The specimen figured was resting on my table
at the time the picture was taken ; but the egg-sac is held free from
the ground when the spider runs.

Just before the young are ready to emerge from the egg-sac,
or just after they begin to do so, the mother fastens it among
leaves at the top of some herbaceous plant or at the end of a
branch of a shrub, and builds a nursery about it by fastening
the leaves together with a net-work of threads (Fig. 684).
She then remains on the outside of the nursery guarding the
young.

Sometimes, as is frequently the case with Dolomedes fontanus,
the nursery is made in an angle between stones and consists only
of threads. While this habit of building a nursery is not universal
in the family, it is sufficiently common to warrant the use of the
term nursery-web weavers as a popular name for the family;
they are also termed the pisaurids.

The members of the Pisaurida? are characterized by the pres-
ence of a semicircular and bordered notch in the apical margin
of the lower side of the trochanters of the legs (Fig. 685). In
this respect they differ from the preceding family, the Agelenidae,
but resemble the following family, the Lycosidae,»\n which the
trochanters are notched in a similar manner.

The pisaurids differ from the lycosids in that the tibia of the
pedipalp of the male is furnished with an external apophysis

599

Fig. 684. PISAURINA MIRA ON HER NURSERY; THE EGG-SAC IS
COVERED BY THE FOLDED LEAVES

600

Superfamily Argiopoidea

(Fig. 686, ex. a); the cuticle is almost always furnished with
appressed plumose hairs; and in all forms in our fauna the two
pieces of the lorum of the pedicle are either united by a transverse
suture (Fig. 687), or the anterior piece is furnished with a notch
behind into which a projection of the posterior piece fits (Fig. 688).

Fig. 685. TROCHANTER OF A
HIND LEG OF DOLOMEDES

ex-a.--

Fig. 686. I'M. ITS ()I •'THE M U.E
OF DOLOMEDES FON I AM -

Fig. 687.
LORUM OF PISAURIXA

I 688
LORUM OF DOLOMEDES

The palpus of the male of Dolomedes fontanus (Fig. 686) is
described in detail on page 1 18.

If only the species of our fauna be considered, a striking
difference in habits between the Lycosidae and the Pisauridae is

60 !

Superfamily Argiopoidea

found. The females of the Pisauridae make an egg-sac composed
of a single piece, and carry it under the body, holding it by the
chelicerae (Fig. 683); those of the Lycosidas make one com-
posed of two valves, and drag it after them, attached to the
spinnerets.

Our pisaurids are all wandering spiders which stalk their
prey, and make webs only for nurseries for their young. Certain
exotic species, however, spin permanent webs, like those of
Tegenaria; hence this family holds an intermediate position in
habits as well as in structure between the Agelenidas and the
Lycosidae.

1 have made careful observations on the method of carrying
the egg-sac. A specimen of Dolomedes urinator had an egg-sac
beneath its body which was so large that the abdomen projected
but a short distance beyond it. The tips of the claws of the
chelicerae were inserted in the egg-sac; the palpi extended over it
in front, the tips of the palpi being closely applied to the lower
surface; and the abdomen was closely applied to it behind. The
sac was of a dirty brown colour, and was attached by a dragline
of clear white silk to the spinnerets. There was an attachment
disk on the egg-sac a short distance from the end of the spinnerets
and from this disk eight threads extended to the spinnerets, two
to each of the fore and middle spinnerets. Similar observations
were made on a specimen of Dolomedes sexpunctatus. It is
obvious that the attachment of the egg-sac to the spinnerets
aids the spider in holding it off the ground when she runs.

As to the number of eggs laid by these spiders, one of my
students.. Miss E. L. Whittaker, reports that during the summer
of 1903 she counted the contents of 22 egg-sacs of Dolomedes.
The average sac was of the size of a small red cherry. The number
of eggs in each varied from 236 to 412; but in 18 of the 22 sacs
the range of variation was from 275 to 312.

The egg-sac of Dolomedes jontanus, and perhaps also those
of other species, become mottled in colour a short time before
the spiderlings emerge. This appears to be due to a stretchin;
and cracking of the outer layer. Shortly before the opening oi
her egg-sac a female was observed pulling at the outer casing
with her chelicerae, but was not seen to open the sac.

Several females of this species, each with an egg-sac, were
kept in confinement. None of these made a nursery until after

602

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the spiderlings began to emerge; but did so immediately after-
ward.

It is evident that the female protects her young. When a
pencil was inserted into a cage some distance from a female on
her nursery she ran toward it and clutched it fiercely, repeating
the performance whenever the pencil was put near her.

The adults were not observed to feed the young; but young
ones were frequently seen to feed upon other members of the
brood.

After the spiderlings had moulted, they left the nursery and
migrated. The period that they remained in* the nursery varied
from three to six days.

Deserted nurseries of Dolomedes are common in late summer.
Figure 689 represents one of these in which the empty egg-sac can
be seen.

Most of our common species of this family belong to the
genus Dolomedes. Several of these are of large size and often
attract attention. Some of them may be found in the dark in
elevated dry places; in most cases, however, their favourite haunts
are near water, and especially in marshy places. They not only
frequent the banks, where they run over the plants growing there,
but they also freely run over the surface of the water in pursuit
of their prey, and, when frightened, they dive beneath the sur-
face, and hide under floating leaves or other objects. An English
species, Dolomedes fimbriates, is said to construct a raft by lashing
together floating leaves. 'This raft is utilized as a point of
departure for raids upon water insects, and as a 'lunch room'
in which captured prey are fed upon. It floats upon the fens of
England, apparently at the sport of the wind" (McCook).

The usual food of Dolomedes is insects, but there is one well-
authenticated instance where a spider of this genus measuring
three fourths of an inch in length and weighing fourteen grains
captured a fish three and one fourth inches long and weighing
sixty-six grains. The spider fastened upon the fish with a deadly
grip just on the forward side of the dorsal fin, and clung to it
till the fish was exhausted and then dragged it out of the
water. The observation was made by Mr. Edward A. Spring
of Eagleswood. X. J., and is described at length with a
figure in Doctor McCook's "American Spiders" (Vol. I.

PP. 235-237)-

603

Fig. 68g. DESERTED NURSERY OF DOLOMEDES

604

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The four genera of the Pisauridae that are represented in our
fauna can be separated by the following table:

TABLE OF GENERA OF" THE PISAURID/E

A. With only two eyes in the anterior row, the anterior median

eyes being situated a considerable distance behind the

anterior lateral eyes.

B. The area outlined by the four anterior eyes as long as

wide. P. 605. Maypacius

BB. The area outlined by the four anterior eyes much wider

than long. P. 605. Thanatidius

AA. With four eyes in the anterior row.

B. Median ocular area longer than wide; lower margin

of the furrow of the chelicerae armed with three teeth.

P. 607. Pisaurina

BB. Median ocular area as wide as or wider than long; lower

margin of the furrow of the cheliceras armed with

four teeth. P. 607. Dolomedes

Genus MAYPACIUS (May-pa'ci-us)

The body is very long. The eyes are in four rows; the area
outlined by the four anterior eyes is as long as wide. The genus
is represented in our fauna by a single known species.

Maypacius floridanus (M. flor-i-da'nus).— - The abdomen
is narrow and long; yellow above, and ornamented with a median
fuscous stripe and a single series of black dots on each side. As
yet the species is known only from Florida.

Genus THANATIDIUS (Than-a-tid'i-us)

These spiders, like Maypacius, are long and slender, but
differ from that genus in the arrangement of the eyes, the area
outlined by the four anterior eyes being much wider than long.
A single species occurs in the Southern States.

Thanatidius dubius (T. du'bi-us). — -This is a pale spider
(Fig. 690). The cephalothorax is marked with 'two slender
longitudinal, blackish lines, edged with greenish. The abdomen
bears a similar green-edged line, which bifurcates toward the
base, and has one small black dot on each bifurcation.

This is a common species in the South.

605

Fig. 690.
THANATIDIUS DUBIUS

Fig. 6g2.
PISAURINA MIRA

Fig. 691.
LORUM OF PISAURINA

606

Fig. 693.
LORUM OF DOLOMEDES

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus PISAURINA (Pis-au-ri'na)

In this and in the following genus there are four eyes in the
anterior row; this genus differs from the following in that the
median ocular area is a little longer than wide, the lower margin
of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with only three teeth,
and the two pieces of the lorum of the pedicle are united by a
transverse suture (Fig. 691). Only two or three species have
been found in the United States; the following is the one best
known.

Pisaurina mira (P. mi'ra). — This is an extremely variable
species in colour and in size. Full-grown specimens measure about
one half inch in length. In the more common type the body is
light brownish yellow, with a wide darker and browner band on
the middle of both cephalothorax and abdomen; on the cephalo-
thorax the edges of the band are nearly straight, but on the
abdomen they are undulating. The band is bordered on each side
by a white line (Fig. 692).

This is a common species throughout the eastern part of
the United States, and one that frequently attracts attention
on account of its beauty. A figure of a female with her egg-sac
is given on page 599; and a figure of one resting on her nursery
on page 600.

This is the Micrommata undata of Hentz.

Genus DOLOMEDES ( Dol-o-me'des)

As in Pisaurina, in the spiders of this genus there are four
eyes in the anterior row; but here the median ocular area is as
wide as or wider than long, the lower margin of the furrow of
the chelicerae is armed with four teeth, and the anterior piece
of the lorum of the pedicle has a notch behind into which a pro-
jection of the posterior piece fits (Fig. 693).

The spiders of this genus frequently attract attention on
account of their large size. They are most often observed near
water, or in marshy places, but sometimes they are found in
cellars or other dark and dry situations.

Notwithstanding their large size and frequent occurrence
our species have not been well differentiated by writers on this
group, and there is consequently much confusion in the nomen-

C07

Superfamily Argiopoidea

clature of them. Seven species are recognized in Banks's Cata-
logue of Near die Spiders; and I have placed here, provisionally,
another species.

The Dark Dolomedes, Dolomedes tenebrosus (D. ten-e-bro'sus).
— This common species is one of the largest members of the
family; the specimen figured here (Fig. 694) is a female and
measures seven eighths inch in length. The following description
was made from a fresh specimen before it was placed in alcohol.

Fig. 694. DOLOMEDES TENEBROSUS

The colours are light brown, gray, and black. The cephalothorax
is narrowly margined with black; within this narrow black margin
there is a broad band in which the brown hairs predominate;
this band extends on each side to the lateral angle of the clypeus,
but is interrupted by a black stripe below the eyes. The lower
part of this stripe is as wide as the clypeus, the upper part as wide
as the first row of eyes is long. The head, back of the eyes is
reddish. The central part of the thorax is dark. There is a
light spot in the outer end of each radial furrow. There are

608

Superfamily Argiopoidea

three well-marked, black, chevrons on the posterior half of the
abdomen, with a light brown spot at each end of each chevron.
On the basal half of the abdomen there are three pairs of black
points.

The epigynum of this species differs markedly from those of
the other common species. The guide is very broad in front
and does not extend to the hind part of the organ (Fig. 695).
It bears a tongue-like projection behind, which in some specimens
is strictly continuous with the wide part, as shown in the figure,
but in other specimens, which are perhaps shrunken, it is more or
less withdrawn into the body and therefore inconspicuous.

This is the Dolomedes idoneus of Montgomery.

The Fountain Dolomedes, Dolomedes fontanus (D. fon-ta'nus).

— This (Fig. 696) is one of the larger and more common species of
Dolomedes; but it is a little smaller than D. tenebrosus. It differs
from our other common species in having the sternum blackish
with a yellow median band. The cephalothorax is brown with
a narrow median light line extending its whole length; from
the median side of each posterior lateral eye arises a yellow
line which passes backward and is so curved that with its
fellow of the opposite side it forms nearly a circle. On the
posterior half of the abdomen there are four transverse W-shaped
yellow bands.

The epigynum of the female is almost as long as wide; the
guide is finger-like, and extends to the hind margin of the organ
(Fig. 697). It resembles that of D. urinator in the apparent
division of the guide.

The apophysis of the tibia of the male palpus terminates
in two large teeth and a small one (Fig. 698).

The Whitish Dolomedes, Dolomedes albineus (D. al-bin'e-us).
This is a large species closely allied to D. tenebrosus. The
female is easily recognized by a yellowish longitudinal band edged
with black on the ventral aspect of the abdomen; the clypeus
bears a white band with black below; and the head is much
elevated. I have not seen the male.

This is a Southern species. Hentz states that' it does nol
dwell habitually in caves and cellars, but is usually found on the
trunks of trees, vet in dark, shady places.

The Diving Dolomedes, Dolomedes urinator (D. u-ri-na'tor).

— The female of this species can be distinguished from our

609

„ jA^tf^tewifei

iir*.'" ^/'^ife^^^^- *

Fig. 6gs.
EPIGYNUM OF DOLO-
MEDES TENEBROSUS

Fig. 697.

EPIGYNUM OF DOLO-

MEDES FONTANUS

Fig. 696. DOLOMEDES FONTANUS, FEMALE WITH HER EGG-SAC

6lO

Fig. 698. PALPUS OF MALE
OF DOLOMEDES FONTANUS

Fig. 699. DOLOMEDES URLNATOR, FEMALE

Fig. 700.
EPIGYNUM OF DOLOMEDES 1 RINATOR

()II

Superfamily Argiopoidea

other large common Dolomedes by the markings of the abdomen
and the form of the epigynum.

There is a median yellow band on the basal half of the ab-
domen; and on each side of this at the base of the abdomen, a
narrow yellow line each forming an incomplete ring; between
these and the tip of the abdomen there are from three to six

Fig. 701. DOLOMEDES URINATOR, MALE

pairs of small, white or yellow spots; each pair of spots is connected
by a slightly recurved, not W-shaped, black line (Fig. 699). The
epigynum (Fig. 700) is distinctly broader than long; the guide
extends the whole length of the organ, and has a transverse
groove near the middle.

The male (Fig. 701) differs so greatly in appearance from
the female that it has been considered a distinct species, and has

612

Superfamily Argiopoidea

been known as Dolomedes lanceolatus. I have not found the
two together; but Mr. Banks assures me that there cannot be
the slightest doubt that urinator and lanceolatus are the two
sexes of the same species. Both were described by Hentz at
the same time; but as the description of D. urinator precedes
that of D. lanceolatus, the former name is used for the species.

In the male, the margin of the cephalothorax is black; just
within this black margin, which is quite narrow, there is a broad
yellowish band which completely surrounds the disk except that
it is interrupted next the abdomen. On each side of the abdomen
there is a yellowish band; from each of which there extend toward
the disk on the hind half of the abdomen two short branches.

This species is usually found on or near water, running on it
with surprising agility, preying often on large aquatic insects.
It can dive and stay a considerable time under water to avoid its
enemies. These facts were noted by Hentz and the specific name
given to the female by him was suggested by them. But other
species of Dolomedes dive as freely as does this one.

The adult female was taken near Ithaca, N. Y., on her nursery
in August; at the same time half-grown females were taken.
From this 1 infer that it requires two years for this spider to
reach maturity.

Dolomedes vernalis (D. ver-na'lis).— - This species, recently
described by Emerton ('09), is much less common than either
of the preceding species of Dolomedes, although it is quite widely
distributed in the Northeastern States and Canada. 1 have seen
only the female (Fig. 702), which 1 collected at Ithaca, N. Y.;
but Hmerton states that the colours and markings of the two sexes
are the same. The cephalothorax of the male measures from
one eighth to one sixth inch in length and a little less in width;
that of the female measures about one fourth inch, and the ab-
domen is of the same length. 'The colours are pale yellow and
gray. The cephalothorax is dark in the middle and light at the
sides, with light gray spots over the coxae. The dark middle
area extends forward between the eyes to the front edge of the
head, dividing into two below the eyes. The chelicerae are striped
on the front with black. The abdomen is light at the sides, and
the middle dark marks are united into a broad stripe with irregu-
larly indented edges. The legs are marked with broken dark
rings, the femur and the tibia having parts of lour rings each.

613

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The sternum is dark around the edges, and the whole under
side of the abdomen is gray, darkest at the sides, with two in-
distinct light lines converging toward the spinnerets."

"The tibia of the male palpus is as short as the patella.
The process of the tibia is as long as the diameter of the joint.
It is flat and widened at the end, hollowed in the middle, and with
the corners sharp, and sometimes two little teeth in the hollow.
The palpal organ resembles that of the other species."

The epigynum is of the form shown in Fig. 703.

The Six-dotted Dolomedes, Dolomedes sexpunctatus (D.
sex-punc-ta'tus). — This is a beautiful and easily recognized species.
It is dark greenish gray in colour, with a white band on each side
extending the whole length of the body, two rows of white spots
on the surface of the abdomen, and six dark dots on the sternum,
three on each side near the coxae. It was probably the presence
of the six dark dots on the sternum that suggested the specific
name. The adult measures from three fifths to four fifths inch
in length. The legs of the male (Fig. 704) are very long, while
those of the female (Fig. 705) are of moderate length.

This beautiful species is common in marshy places. It
lives on plants over water; and dives freely when frightened,
hiding under floating leaves. It is widely distributed, ha\ i ;.
been found from New England to Texas.

There is some doubt whether our Dolomedes which are marked
as described above represent a single variable species or more
than one species. I have seen only a single type of female,
the epigynum of which is represented by Fig. 706. I have
before me, however, two easily separated types of males, which can
be distinguished as follows:

Type a. — In this form the width of the clypeus is about
equal to the space between the anterior median eyes and the
posterior median eyes; the posterior median eyes are but little
if at all larger than the anterior median eyes; the anterior row of
eyes is longer than in Type b; and the femur of the fourth pair
of legs lacks the spinose hump characteristic of Type b.

Type b. — This type of male is easily recognized by the
presence of a spinose hump under the femur of the fourth legs.
The width of the clypeus is two or three times as great as the
space between the anterior median eyes and the posterior median
eyes; the posterior median eyes are much larger than the anterior

614

Fig. 702. DOLOMEDES VERNALIS, FEMALE

Fig. 703.
EPIGYNl M OF DOLO-
MEDES VERNALIS

Fig. 704. DOL()MEI)|-> -I.M'IM l.\ll>, MALE
6.5

Superfamily Argiopoidea

median eyes; and the anterior row of eyes is but little longer
than the row formed by the posterior median eyes.

This species may be the Lycosa triton of Walckenaer as
suggested by Petrunkevitch Cioa); but it does not seem wise to
me to change the name at this time. It is quite possible that

the two types described above
represent distinct species, and
that one may be termed D. triton
and the other D. sexpundatus.

iSsag-SSS

Fig. 70s. DOLOMEDES
SEXPUNCTATUS, FEMALE

Fig. 706. EPIGYNUM OF
DOLOMEDES SEXPUNCTATUS

Dolomedes tenax (D. ten'ax).— This is a small spider de-
scribed by Hentz (44) from North Carolina. He represents
it as one fourth inch in length. The species is unknown to me.
I therefore copy his figure (Fig. 709) and quote the original
description which is as follows:

"Description. — Grayish; cephalothorax edged with black,
varied with blackish on the disk; abdomen also edged with black
near the base, varied longitudinally, with blackish on the disk,
about three whitish dots on each side near the apex, pale beneath,
with two obscure longitudinal lines; feet, with blackish bands
above, pale beneath. 4. 2. 1. 3. Never large."

"Observations. — This distinct species is always found on
upright sticks, small trees, etc., turning round to avoid an attack
in the same manner as Oxyopes scalaris, which it resembles so
much that for a time I could not distinguish one from the other.
It spreads its feet like Thomisus. The form of its cephalothorax
is peculiar, the head being elevated and well-defined from
the thorax. It must not be mistaken for the young of D.

616

Superfamily Argiopoidea

tenebrosus, which resembles the old, and dwells in dark places,
whereas this is quite a diurnal species, fond of broad day-
light."

Dolomedes pinicola (D. pi-nic'o-la). — Among the rare species
described by Hentz is one which he named M icrommata pinicola.
The position of this species is in doubt; it is placed by Banks
in his Catalogue ('10) in the genus Tbaumasia.

Mr. Banks has kindly loaned me for study his only specimen
of what he believes to be this species, although he states that he
is not absolutely sure of it. The specimen agrees well with the

Fig. 709. DOLOMEDES
TENAX (after Hentz)

Fig. 710. DOLOMEDES
PINICOLA (after Hentz)

description and figure by Hentz; and, as 1 know of no other
specimen, 1 accept without question Mr. Banks's identification
of the species.

Figure 710 is a copy of the figure by Hentz, and the following
is his description: "Whitish, cephalothorax with the area of the
eyes dusky; abdomen with various indistinct curved lines and
impressions; venter with two curved lines of minute brown dots.
Feet 1. 2. 4. 3. Habitat Alabama."

I have removed the species, provisionally, until more shall
be known about it, to the genus Dolomedes; because in Mr.
Banks's specimen the lower margin of the furrow of «the chelic-
erae is armed with four quite evenly spaced teeth, while in Tbaum-
asia this margin is armed with only three teeth, of which the
last is remote from the others. In this specimen the lorum of
the pedicle resembles in form that of Dolomedes.

617

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Family LYCOSID^ (Ly-cos'-idae)

The IVolf-spiders

The Lycosidae are hunting spiders, which chase their prey.
For this reason the typical genus was named Lycosa, which is
from the Greek word for wolf.

In this family the trochanters of the legs are notched as in
the preceding family (Fig. 711); but the lorum of the pedicel
of the abdomen is of a different form. In this family the lorum
is composed of two pieces of which the posterior one is notched to
receive the anterior one (Fig. 712). The cuticle is almost always
clothed with simple or squamose hairs; the tibia of the pedipalp
of the male is unarmed; and the embolus is short and rarely
exerted. The eyes are in three rows, the posterior lateral eye:,
being situated far behind the posterior median eyes (Fig. 713);
the first row consists of four small eyes and the two posterior rows
each of two large eyes. The relative proportions are very different
from what exists in the jumping spiders, where also the eves are
in three rows.

In the Lycosidae the palpus of the male is essentially of the
same type as that of the Pisauridae, except that the tibia is not
furnished with an external apophysis. Figure 714 a represents
the expanded bulb of Lycosa erratica, with the parts lettered as in
other figures of palpi; see page 121.

In the unexpanded bulb (Fig. 714 b) the embolus is curved so
that its tip rests in a furrow in the conductor of the embolus,
which is immediately distad of the median apophysis. The part
termed the auricula by Chamberlin ('08) is evidently the conductor
of the embolus.

The wolf-spiders are common; they run through grass or
lurk under stones, especially in damp situations. Many species
dig tunnels in the earth, and some of these build a turret about
the mouth of their tunnel. They all carry their egg-sac attached
to the spinnerets by a bundle of threads. After hatching, the
young pass to the body of the mother and are carried about by
her for a considerable time (Fig. 715). Whether the mother
provides nourishment or not to the young during this period has
not been definitely determined.

The egg-sac varies in shape, that made by some species is
spherical, in other cases it is flattened. It consists of two valves,

618

Fig. 711-

TROCHANTER OF LEG,

SHOWING NOTCH

Fig. 713. FACE CF LYCOSA.

SHOWING ARRANGEM ENT

OF EYES

Fig. 712. LORUM OF THE
PEDICEL OF LYCOSA

/. St. a

Fig. 714. PALPUS 01 MALE 01 LYCOSA ERRATICA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

one above, the other below; these valves are usually united by
a suture of more delicate tissue, which the mother tears in order
to let the young escape.

A few members of the family spin webs. In one division
of the family, which is represented in this country only by Sosippus,

the web is said to resemble that
of Agelena.

It is to this family that
the famous tarantula of southern
Europe belongs, the bite of which
was supposed to cause the danc-
ing madness. This is a large
species, resembling in form and
colour our Lycosa carolinensis.

The Lycosidae have received
the attention of most of the
writers on American spiders.
The large size of many of the
species and the interesting habits
of some of them have made
them attractive subjectsof study.
The only paper, however, that
aims to describe all of the spe-
cies in our fauna is the Revision of North American Spiders of
the Family Lycosidce by Ralph V. Chamberlin (08). This
paper, which was prepared by Mr. Chamberlin while a graduate
student in the Department of Entomology of Cornell University,
1 have freely used in the preparation of the following account
of the family.

The genera of the Lycosidae represented in the United States
can be separated by the following table:

Fig. 715-

LYCOSA HELLUO, FEMALE
WITH YOUNG

AA.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE LYCOSID^

Anterior tibiae armed below with five pairs of long slanting
spines. Only a single rare species from the South known.
P. 649. Sosilaus

Anterior tibiae armed beneath with less than five pairs

of spines.
B. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera? armed

620

Superfamily Argiopoidea

with four stout conical teeth. Only two rare species
from the extreme South known in our fauna. P. 622.

Sosippus
BB. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae armed
with two or three teeth, never with four.
C. Anterior row of eyes very strongly procurved, the
median eyes much farther from the lateral than
from each other. P. 649. Trabea

CC. Anterior row of eyes not strongly procurved, the
median eyes little or usually nut at all farther from
the lateral eyes than from each other.
D. Cephalothorax glabrous or very nearly so, smooth
and shining, dark in colour, and without definite
light markings. P. 645. Allocosa

DD. Cephalothorax not glabrous, when but slightly
pubescent having a distinct light-coloured median
stripe.
E. Distal pair of ventral spines of the anterior
tibiae never apical in position; cephalothorax
with a median band enclosing in its anterior
portion a dark V-shaped mark. P. 641. Pirata
EE. Distal pair of ventral spines of the anterior
tibiae apical in position; median pale band of
cephalothorax when present not enclosing an-
teriorly a dark V-shaped mark.
F. Labium wider than long with basal excava-
tions short. P. 650. Pardosa
FF Labium longer than wide with the basal ex-
cavations long.
G Female with the lateral extensions of the guide
of the epigynum divided so as to be double.
Male with the embolus distinctly elbowed,
and with the terminal apophysis of the
bulb of the palpus conspicuously elevated
and usually more or less produced into a
horn-like process extending beyond the
front margin of the alveolus. P.' (147.

Schizoco^ \
GG. Female with the lateral extensions of the
guide of the epigynum undivided.

621

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Male with the embolus evenly curved, not
elbowed, and with the terminal apophysis
of the bulb of the palpus not conspicuously
elevated or produced above into a horn-like
process extending beyond the front margin
of the alveolus. P. 622. Lycosa

Genus SOSIPPUS (So-sip'pus)

The anterior eyes are in a strongly procurved row; the lateral
eyes are as large as or larger than the median eyes. The lower
margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with four teeth.
The tarsi and metatarsi of the anterior legs are densely scopulate.
The last segment of the hind spinnerets is moderately long and
conical.

This genus is our only representative of a small group of
genera, the Hippaseae, which, while possessing the structural
characteristics of the Lycosidae, resemble the Agelenidae in habits.
They are sedentary, constructing a large permanent funnel-web,
upon which they run like an Agelena.

Two species have been found within the limits of the United
States; one in Florida and one in California.

Sosippus floridanus (S. flor-i-da'nus).— - The female is a
large spider measuring nearly three fifths inch in length; and the
male measures nearly one half inch in length. The cephalothorax
is deep reddish brown or reddish black, with a median stripe of
yellow hair behind the eye-region, and on each side a wider
marginal white band. The abdomen is blackish above with a
row of white spots on each side, and narrow transverse white
lines on the hind part.

This species occurs in Florida.

Sosippus californicus (S. cal-i-for'ni-cus). — The female meas-
ures from one third to two fifths inch in length. It was described
from Southern California.

Genus LYCOSA (Ly-co'sa)

The labium is longer than wide and the basal excavations
in it are long, usually one third or more of the length of the
labium (Fig. 716). The face is much wider below than above
and has the sides strongly convex. The anterior tibiae are armed

622

Superfamily Argiopoidea

below with three pairs of spines which are but little if any longer
than the diameter of the segment.

This genus includes the larger and more familiar members
of the family; but some of the species are of moderate size. They
are often found running over the ground in damp pastures or
lurking under stones or rubbish in fields or at the edges of woods.
Some of them live near water upon which they run freely and be-
neath which they dive when alarmed.

Although some species of Lycosa are wandering spiders,
resembling the Pardosas in this respect, a large proportion of the
species build retreats. The retreat may be merely a shallow
excavation under a log or stone, lined with silk, and surrounded
by a wall of earth or of sticks and stones. But more often the
retreat is a vertical tube in the earth, which in some cases is a
foot or more in depth. This tube is often lined,
with a thin film of silk, especially when made • , \

in loose soil; this lining is thicker toward the open- . v \

ing of the tube than in the deeper portion of it. j

Some species surround the mouth of their
tube with a circular wall of earth and pebbles
brought from the burrow or with a turret
made of grass and dirt fastened together with
silk or of bits of twigs fastened in place in Fig 7l6

the same way. Figure 717 represents a turret labium ok lycosa

ERRATICA

made of grass and earth at the entrance to a
burrow of Lycosa carolinensis. The specimen figured was taken
near Agricultural College, Mississippi. It was one of many
found in a bank of earth that had been thrown out of a ditch.
These burrows were vertical or nearly so and about six inches
in depth; some of them were nearly one inch in diameter. The
burrow with the highest turret observed was that of a male; but
nests of females were much more abundant.

The material used in the construction of the turret is what-
ever the spider finds most available in the vicinity of its burrow;
consequently the turrets of different individuals of the same
species may present a very different appearance. Even the same
individuals under changed conditions will vary the nature of its
turret. A correspondent sent me an immature male Lycosa;
it was one of a large number of individuals found near a railroad
track, and in1each case the spider had built its turret entirel)

623

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of cinders. The soil in which the burrows were made was quite
sandy, and the turrets were in many cases an inch or more in
height. When I received the specimen, I put it in a cage made of
a glass cylinder placed over a flower pot filled with earth. A
hole had been made in the earth near the centre of the cage;
into this the spider retreated. A few days later it was observed
that the spider had built a low wall of small stones about the
entrance of its tube. I then put a quantity of fragments of twigs

Fig. 717. TURRET OF LYCOSA CAROLINENSIS?

into the cage, and on the next day was rewarded by seeing that dur-
ing the night several of the twigs had been placed upon the wall.
From time to time, but always in the night, other twigs were placed
on the wall, till finally a turret one inch in height had been built
(Fig. 718). Each twig was held in place by threads of silk; in
fact the turret was lined with a continuous sheet of this substance.
The spider was very shy. 1 never saw it outside of its
turret, although its cage was kept in my office during several
months. It was evident that it left its nest only at night, or when

624

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Fig. 718. TURRET OF LYCOSA

it was sure that no one was near. But it spent much time during
the day perched at the top of the turret, with its head projecting
so that it could see the region surrounding its retreat. This,
I think, indicates the use of the turret; it is a watch tower from
which the spider can
see its prey more read-
ily than it could from
the surface of the
ground. And the fact
that the spider used its
watch tower during
the day indicates that
it would leave it to
capture prey at this
time if it felt it were
safe to do so.

When stationed at the top of the turret it rested, as it were,
on its elbows, with its tarsi inside the turret, so that it could
drop into the burrow instantly.

The large Lycosas live two or more years; on the approach
of winter they close the entrance to their burrows with debris
fastened together with silk.

The egg-sac of Lycosa is spherical and usually white; the seam
between the two valves is sometimes very conspicuous (Fig. 719),

but often it is not well
marked. When the
spiderlings are ready
to emerge the female
rips open the sac with
her chelicerae. This I
have observed with a
large Lycosa that I
had in a breeding
cage. The female rolled the sac and pulled out threads along
the equator. 1 observed the female doing this one day and on
the following day the spiderlings were out. The young climb
onto the back of the mother and are carried about by her for some
time. A female of Lycosa belluo with her brood is represented
on page 620 ; the entire body except the head is covered with
spiderlings and presents a very unsightly appearance.

625

Fig. 719- LYCOSA WITH EGG-SAC

Superfamily Argiopoidea

The genus Lycosa is a very large one; even as restricted here,
by the removal of the genera Pirata, Allocosa, and Scbi^ocosa,
all of which are included in it by Simon, it is represented by
about thirty known species in the United States and Canada
alone. Many of these species are very widely distributed,
occurring over the greater part of the continent; and as they
exhibit considerable variation in size and colour in the different
parts of their range, and too, as frequently different species
closely resemble each other, the determination of the species
is often a matter of considerable difficulty. It is not strange,
therefore, that differences of opinion exist among the writers
on this group as to the specific identity of certain forms, and
that many synonyms are to be found in our lists of species. The
species recognized by Chamberlin ('08) are separated by him as
follows:

TABLE OF SPECIES OF LYCOSA

A. Venter of abdomen black in front of the epigastric furrow

and in a spot at the base of the spinnerets, elsewhere

pale brown. Occurs in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico,

and Kansas. L. coloradensis

AA. Not so.

B. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae armed with

but two teeth.

C. Anterior lateral eyes their diameter from the front

margin of the clypeus. Occurs in Colorado, Utah,

Oregon, Arizona, and California. L. kocbii

CC. Anterior lateral eyes once and one half their diameter

from the front margin of the clypeus. Occurs in

Canada. L. beanii

BB. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae armed with

three teeth.

C. No spine at all above on the tibiae of the third and

fourth legs.

D. Dorsum of abdomen with a distinct median dark

band along its entire length; light median band

on the cephalothorax. P. 635. L. pikei

DD. Dorsum of abdomen without such a dark band;

cephalothorax without distinct markings. P. 636.

L. fatifera

626

Superfamily Argiopoidea

CC. Spine at middle or both at middle and at proximal

end on the tibiae of the third and fourth legs

D. No true stout spine at base above on tibiae of the

third and fourth legs, replaced by a basally stout,

apically slender and pointed elongated bristle.

E. Tibia and patella together of the fourth legs less

than one eighth inch long. Occurs in Florida.

L. florid iana
EE. Tibia and patella together of the fourth legs
nearly one sixth inch long or longer.
F. Eyes upon a black patch; legs not marked with
dark annuli. P. 641. L. cinerea

FF. Eyes not upon a black paten; legs marked with
dark annuli. P. 640. L. rubicunda

DO. A true robust spine at base above on the tibiae of
the third and fourth legs.
E. Cephalothorax with a light median longitudinal
stripe, which is very narrow or line-like ante-
riorly, and which extends forward to or between
eyes of second row.
F. Legs strongly banded with black, or if, annula-
tions are indistinct, legs entirely black.
G. Anterior row of eyes as wide as or a little
wider than the second. P. 634. /.. aspersa
GG. Anterior row of eyes shorter than the second.
P. 633. L. riparni

FF. Legs yellow or light brown, not at all annulate
or with a few dark markings on femora.
G. Males.

H. Cephalothorax near .40 inch in length;
fourth leg not more than 3.25 times as
long as cephalothorax. Occurs in Kansas.

L. permunda

HH. Cephalothorax under .30 inch in length;

fourth leg 3.7 or more times a^ long as

cephalothorax.

I. Tibia and patella together of the first

leg longer than the tibia and patella

together of the fourth leg. Occurs in

Colorado. L. grandis

627

Superfamily Argiopoidea

II. Tibia and patella together of the first leg
shorter than the tibia and patella of the
fourth leg. P. 633. L. helluo

GG. Females.

H. Fourth leg less than three times the length
of the cephalothorax. Occurs in Kansas.

L. permunda
HH. Fourth leg more than three times the length
of the cephalothorax.
1. Abdomen beneath and the sternum im-
maculate pale yellow, clothed with yel-
low hair. Occurs in Colorado.

L. grand is
II. Sternum mostly black or nearly so and
clothed largely with black hair; ab-
domen beneath mostly with numerous
dark dots and sometimes nearly black.
P. 633. L. helluo

EE. Cephalothorax either without a median band or
with a band which is as wide or nearly as wide
as the third eye-row.
F. Dorsum of abdomen marked along its entire
length by a distinct median dark band.
G. Sternum yellow or light brown; dorsal dark
band of abdomen, usually with margins
behind dentate or else enclosing along each
side a series of small oblique light spots.
P. 637. L. scutulata

GG. Sternum black; dorsal band of abdomen
with margins always straight and not dentate
or enclosing light spots behind. P. 637.

L. pundulata
FF. Abdomen not so marked.

G. Cephalothorax entirely without light bands
or spots either at middle or along sides.
H. Sternum and coxae of legs usually entire,
venter of abdomen black; both ends of
tibiae of legs beneath black, p. 636.

L. carolinensis
HH. Sternum light to reddish brown, not black;

628

Superfamily Argiopoidea

venter of abdomen not black either in whole
or in part. Occurs in Canada. L. quinaria
GG. Cephalothorax with at least a median lighter
band or spot.
H. Tibiae of fourth legs black at both ends
beneath, other tibiae and legs elsewhere
unmarked excepting faint brown cross-
bars on femora (sternum and venter
of abdomen entirely black.) Occurs in
Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico..

L. apicata
HH. Not so.

I. Legs pale brown and entirely without
darker markings; venter behind epi-
gastric furrow black, rarely a pale
central spot. Occurs in Pennsylvania,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Ala-
bama, Georgia, and Florida. L. hnta
II. Legs similar, but patellae and often dis-
tal end of tibiae black beneath; anterior
femora above and posteriorly with fine
longitudinal dark lines, posterior femora
with faint dark spots; venter as for
preceding. Occurs in the Atlantic States
and west to Texas.

L. lenta variety baltimoriana
III. Not as for lenta or its variety.

J. All tibiae black at both ends beneath

and the femora black beneath at the

distal end; large, the cephalothorax

two fifths inch or more in length.

P. 636. L. carolinensis

JJ. Tibiae and femora not banded thus at

ends only beneath; cephalothorax less

than two fifths inch in length.

K. Females.

L. Lateral depressed areas of the
epigynum wide, subcircular, not
elongate in the usual way. (Fig.
720, a). P. 640. L. avara

629

Superfamiiy Argiopoidea

LL. Epigynum not so.

M. Guide of epigynum inversely
T-shaped, the transverse arms
relatively slender.
N. Septum of guide strongly
widening from base of trans-
verse arms to anterior end,
where it extends entirely
or nearly across the median
depression.
O. Confining walls of epigy-
num very wide anteriorly
(Fig. 720, b). P. 638.

L. prat en sis

00. Not so, the epigynum much

like that of L. helluo (Fig.

720, c). Occurs in Florida.

L. Horidana

NN. Not so.

O. Transverse piece of guide
extending across or al-
most entirely across the
epigynum behind, some
longer than median piece,
scarcely confined by side
ridges at ends. (Fig. 720,
d). P. 638. L. frondicola
OO. Transverse piece of guide
not so long, distinctly con-
fined by ridges at ends.
P. Septum widest at its an-
terior end; lateral walls
thick, epigynum as a
whole rather wider
than long. P. 639.

L. mod est a

PP. Septum widest toward

middle part of its length;

transverse arms usually

excavated at ends above;

630

Superfamily Argiopoidea

epigynum as a whole
roughly triangular, being
much narrowed anteriorly
(Fig. 720^). P. 637.

L. erratic a

MM. Guide enlarged at posterior end,

but not inversely T-shaped or

anchor-shaped.

N. Enlarged end portion of guide

roughly triangular in shape

with the apex behind (Fig.

720, /). P. 640.

L. pictilis

NN. Expanded end of guide not

so shaped, widest behind,

where it is truncate, (Fig.

720, g). P. 639 L. gulosa

KK. Males.

L. Anterior row of eyes shorter than
the second.
M. Median pale band of cepha-
lothorax strongly widening
anteriorly, passing each side
of the eyes and reaching to
the clypeus, the full width of
which it embraces. Occurs in
Canada. L. albohastata

MM. Median pale band of cephalo-
thorax not wider than and en-
closing eye area.
N. Embolus curving out ventral-
ward and forward, resting
only its apical part ob-
liquely across the conductor
(Fig. 720, b). P. 639.

. L. gulosa
NN. Not so.

O. Median pale stripe strongly
bulging between third
eye-row and anterior end

63.

Superfamily Argiopoidea

of dorsal groove, being
wider than third eye-
row; at front of furrow
abruptly narrowed to the
width of third eye-row,
its sides then subparallel
to posterior declivity.
P. 640 L. pictilis

00. Median pale band of cepha-
lothorax not so formed.
P. Dorsum of abdomen with
a median light band
extending to spinner-
ets behind, where it
ends in a point, enclos-
ing at base a dark
lanceolate mark, or
with the latter some-
times absent. P. 637.
L. erratica
PP. No such distinctly limited
light band on dorsum of
abdomen.
Q. Venter mostly black.
P. 639. L. modesta
QQ. Venter brown to yel-
lowish. P. 640.

L. avara
LL. Anterior row of eyes as long as or
longer than the second.
M. Venter with a wide irregularly
edged black band extending
from the epigastric furrow
to the spinnerets and some-
times embracing entire width
of abdomen. P. 638.

L. frond 'kola
MM. Venter with no such broad
black band. P. 638.

L. pratensis

632

Superfamily Argiopoidea

THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF LYCOSA

The following notes are merely supplementary to the data
given in the table above and are not intended to be sufficient for
the determination of species, which can be best done by the use
of the table.

Lycosa belluo (L. hel'lu-o). — The colour of the body above is
dull yellow or greenish brown. The cephalothorax is marked
with a narrow yellow stripe in the middle; this stripe is quite
narrow between the eyes and somewhat wider on the thorax;
there is also a light stripe along each lateral margin of the thorax.
On the basal half of the abdomen there is a longitudinal lanceo-
late stripe similar to that found in many species, which is wider
in the middle and pointed at each end; this stripe is darker at the
edges and is bordered by lighter bands. On the hinder half of
the abdomen there is a series of indistinct chevrons. The form
of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720, c. The female is about
three fourths inch in length; the male, one half inch.

This is one of our most common and most widely distributed
species; it has been found throughout the East and as far west as
Texas and Utah. The female builds a shallow nest, lined with
silk, and often surrounded with a low wall of earth or of sticks and
leaves, under a stone or other object lying on the ground. They
are found in these nests with their egg-sacs early in the summer.
This spider is often found in the woods.

This species is known under several different names; the one
which has been most used is Lycosa nidicola proposed by Emerton
in 1885; but the species was described under the name belluo
by Walckenaer in 1837.

Lycosa riparia (L. ri-pa'ri-a). — The cephalothorax is brown,
with a narrow grayish yellow median band, which is widest at the
median furrow and reduced to a line between the eyes. The
abdomen is grayish brown above, with scattered minute spots of
black pubescence, and indistinct outline of a lanceolate stripe on
the basal part, and several black chevrons behind. The female
is three fourths inch in length.

This is a southern species, its range extending from the
District of Columbia southward. It has been found also westward
to Kansas and Texas. Hentz, who first described the species
states that it "is aquatic in its habits, always found near or on

633

Superfamily Argiopoldea

water, and diving with ease under the surface when threatened
or pursued."

Lycosa aspersa (L. as-per'sa). — The cephalothorax is dark
reddish brown, blackish about the eyes; there is a lighter uneven-

Fig. 720. EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF LYCOSA

a, epigynum of L. avara b, epigynum of L. pratensis r, epigynum of L. helluo \d, epigynum

of L. jrondkala e, epigynum of L. erratica /, epigynum of L. pictilis g, epigynum

of L. gulosa h, palpus of male of L. gulosa i, epigynum

of L. pikei (after Chamberlin)

edged marginal band on each side, and a more or less distinct
narrow median stripe. The abdomen is very dark above; there
is a basal black mark, which is forked behind and followed by a
series of chevron marks; these are indistinct in old individuals.
This is a common burrowing species; its known range extends

634

Superfamily Argiopoidea

from New England to the Gulf of Mexico, and west to Kansas. 1 1
has been described several times under different specific names;
the synonyms are Lycosa tigrina, Lycosa vulpina, and Lycosa
inhonesta; the first description, under the name Lycosa aspersa,
was by Hentz in 1844.

Lycosa pikei (L. pi'ke-i). — In the female the cephalothorax
is dark reddish brown to blackish, with a median lighter band a
little wider than the third eye-row in front, strongly narrowed
to the dorsal groove and usually expanding again back of the
groove. The abdomen is marked with a dark brown median
band, which extends to the spinnerets and which has a broad
indentation on each side just in front of the middle and a series
of narrow paired indentations behind; the sides of the dorsum
are grayish brown. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig.
720 i. The length of the body is about three fourths inch.

The range of this species includes the Eastern and Middle
States and extends to the District of Columbia and to Indiana.
It is a burrowing and turret building species; its burrows are often
from ten to twelve inches deep and one half inch in width. It was
first described by Mr. Scudder in 1877 under the name Lycosa
arenicola; but this name had already been used for an English
species of Lycosa.

Lycosa nidi/ex (L. nid'i-fex). — This species has been con-
fused with the preceding. The two names L. nidi/ex and L. pikei
were both proposed by Marx ('81) in an article which treated
chiefly of the tube-constructing habits of these spiders and in
which no structural characters are given by which they could be
distinguished. It is now believed that the form named /.. pikei
by Marx is the same as that previously described by Scudder under
the preoccupied name L. arenicola; and Chamberlin has recently
published a description of what is believed to be the L. nidijex
of Marx (Canada Ent. Jan., '10).

The cephalothorax is dark reddish brown without definite
light markings, but the median dorsal portion of the head and the
clypeus is paler. The abdomen is light yellowish brown, with a
solid black lanceolate mark at the anterior end. The epigynum
of the female is of the form shown in Fig. 72 1 ; it is' relatively
longer and narrower anteriorly than that of L. pikei, and the
furrows are contracted cephalad.

Doctor Marx gave an excellent account of the habits of this

635

Superfamily Argiopoidea

species with figures of its turrets, one of which is reproduced here
(Fig. 722). The species is widely distributed.

Lycosa fattjera (L. fa-tif'e-ra). — This species is dark brown
above and somewhat lighter below; the cephalothorax is without
distinct markings and the abdomen lacks the dark band seen in the
preceding species. It is a burrowing and turret building species,
and is widely distributed. Its habits were described by Mr. J.
C. Hancock ('99) who called it the castle-building spider, and
described it under the name Lycosa domijex.

Lycosa carolinensis (L. car-o-li-nen'sis). — The cephalothorax
is clothed with brown and gray hairs and is usually without
distinct markings; but in some individuals there is a gray supra-
marginal band on each side and
a similar median one along the

Fig. 721.
EPIGYNUM OF L. NIDIFEX

Fig. 722.
TURRET OF L. NIDIFEX (after Marx)

dorsum, widening from behind anteriorly. The tegument of the
abdomen is light brown covered above with long brown to grayish
brown pubescence, except over the dark marks which are clothed
and made more distinct by black hair; these marks are as

the
end

dorsum a median stripe,
and sends out from its
lines directed backward and
basal line there are several

follows: on the basal part of

which is forked at the hinder

sides several pairs of pointed

toward the sides; behind the

chevrons, and often a series of light dots along each side.

The female attains a length of nearly one and one half inches;

the male, four fifths of an inch.

This spider occurs over the greater part of the United States
and is the largest member of the Lycosidae found in our territory.
The female digs a burrow six or eight inches deep and sometimes

636

Superfamily Argiopoidea

builds a turret around its entrance; but it is also often found
running about on the ground or lurking under stones.

Lycosa erratica (L. er-rat'i-ca). — The colour of the body
varies from light gray to almost black. The cephalothorax is
marked with a reddish yellow or reddish brown median band, which
is narrowest on the thorax and wider on the head, becoming as wide
as the third row of eyes; between the eyes it is reduced to a narrow
stripe. There is also a light band on each lateral margin of the
cephalothorax; this band is more or less split by a dark line. The
abdomen is marked with a longitudinal pale band, which tapers
to a point at the spinnerets and encloses a distinct lanceolate
stripe in the basal half or two thirds of its length; behind the
lanceolate mark there may be several dark transverse lines. The
venter is whitish or light yellow and usually marked in specimens
from the eastern United States with two black stripes which meet
at the spinnerets making a U-shaped figure; in specimens from
the Pacific Coast this U-shaped figure is usually wanting in adults.
The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720, e. The length
of the body varies from two fifths to one half inch.

This is a common and very widely distributed spider. It is
a vagabond species, which is found running in grass 6f hiding
under stones; so far as is known it makes no burrow. It was
described by Hentz under the name adopted here; it was
later described by Emerton under the name of Lycosa -communis;
and it has been described under several other names by other
authors.

Lycosa scutulata (L. scu-tu-la'ta). — The cephalothorax is
dark gray with three light longitudinal stripes extending its whole
length, and a narrow light line on each lateral margin of the
thorax (Fig. 723). The abdomen is marked with a broad dark
median band, which is notched on each side in front of the middle
of the abdomen, and which encloses several pairs of light spots on
the hinder part of the abdomen. At the sides of the median band
are narrow light bands, and beyond these fine light and dark
oblique lines. The male measures about one half inch in length;
the female, four fifths inch or more.

This large species is common and widely distributed; so far
as is recorded it has been observed only as a wanderinu spider.

Lycosa punctulata (L. punc-tu-la'ta). — The cephalothorax
is light brown, with each side of the middle a blackish brown

637

Superfamily Argiopoidea

stripe, which runs forward over the eyes of the corresponding
side; also on each side a very narrow marginal and a wider sub-
marginal blackish line; the median light band is narrower than
the dark bands enclosing it; between the eyes of the third and
second rows it is narrowed to a line but widens again above the
eyes of the first row. The ab-
domen is marked with a long-
itudinal black median band, the
edges of which are not notched
and which does not include light
spots as in the preceding species;
on each side of the median band
is a grayish brown stripe; exterior
to the gray stripes the sides are
covered with brown and grayish
brown intermingled in spots and
streaks. The body measures three
fifths inch or more in length.

This is a widely distributed
species in the eastern half of the
United States.

Lycosa frondicola (L. fron-
dic'o-la). — The cephalothorax is
dark brown above, with a median
light brown band, which is widest
just behind the eye-space, where
it is wider than the third row of
eyes. The abdomen is grayish
brown above; with the lanc-
eolate stripe faintly indicated,
and with indistinct chevrons on
the hinder part. The form of
the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720 d. The male measures two
fifths inch in length; the female, about one half inch.

The range of this species includes the greater part of the
United States. It is common especially in the mountainous
portions of the country. It is found most frequently in and at
the edges of woods, among fallen leaves and sticks.

Lycosa pratensis (L. pra-ten'sis). — This is a yellowish brown
species with indistinct light and dark markings. The cephalo-

638

Fig. 723. LYCOSA SCUTULATA

Superfamily Argiopoidea

thorax is marked with a median light band, which is widest be-
tween the third row of eyes and the median furrow; in this wider
portion there are two dark longitudinal lines. On the basal half
of the abdomen there is a lanceolate stripe and behind this four
or five chevrons. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720
b. The length of the body is about one half inch.

This is a very common species in the northeastern part of
the United States and in Canada; it is found under stones.

Lycosa gulosa (L. gu-lo'sa). — The cephalothorax is dark
brown with a light gray stripe in the middle; this stripe is strongly
constricted in front of the median furrow and less markedly so
behind this furrow; it is widest in front of the first constriction,
and extends forward to the second row of eyes. The abdomen
is grayish brown above, with a darker lanceolate stripe on the
basal half; this stripe, however, is sometimes indistinct or wanting.
There is a black spot on each side near the base of the abdomen;
and usually a row of dark marks extend back on each side from
the basal spot to the hind end of the abdomen. The form of the
epigynum is shown in Fig. 720 g; and the palpus of the male in
Fig. 720 /;. The length of the body is about one half inch.

This is a widely distributed species, its range covering the
greater part of the United States. It is common in forests, where
its brown and gray colours like those of dead leaves are protective.

This species has been commonly known under the name of
Lycosa kochii; but this name, according to Chamberlin, should be
applied to another species, which is known only from the Far
West.

Lycosa modesta (L. mo-des'ta). — The cephalothorax is dark
brown or nearly black with a light gray median band, which is as
wide as the space between the eyes of the third row; the margins
of this band are straight or slightly curved outward and converge
gradually backward; near each lateral margin of the carapace there
are two gray lines, which are often indistinctly separated. The
abdomen is brown, with a black lanceolate stripe on basal part
and black chevrons on the hinder part; there is also a black mark
on each side at the base, and usually a row of white spots on
each side behind, in which the chevrons terminate*. The male
measures one third inch in length; the female about one half inch.

This species has been found in Maryland, District of Columbia
Pennsylvania, and Texas.

639

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Lycosa pictilis (L. pic'ti-lis). — The cephalothorax is chocolate-
brown, with a median grayish band, which begins at the second
row of eyes, extends between the eyes of the third row, and then
abruptly bulges on each side, being much wider than the eye-space
midway between the eyes and the median furrow, then narrowing
to the median furrow, where it is about the same width as the eye-
space. The abdomen is dark brown above, with a black spot on
each side at the base, which in the female encloses a light spot
but not in the male; on each side, between the basal black spot
and the middle line of the body, there is a large light spot; on
the hinder part of the abdomen, there is a series of chevrons; at
the outer end of each of the chevrons is a light spot enclosed by
black, and in front of each half of each chevron is a light-coloured
spot. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720, /. The
male measures nearly two fifths inch in length; the female, about
one half inch.

Mr. Emerton, who first described the species, states that
it is abundant among the moss and low shrubs on the upper part
of Mount Washington, N. H., and the neighbouring mountains.

Lycosa rubicunda (L. ru-bi-cun'da). — The cephalothorax is
dark reddish brown above with a light brown median band; the
hairs with which it is clothed are very short and sparse, which re-
sults in the carapace having a polished appearance; the median
light band is wider than the eye-space in front, behind the eye-
space it narrows rapidly to the median furrow. The abdomen is
gray, light in the middle, and with many closely placed dark dots
and dashes on the sides. The length of the body is about two
fifths inch.

Emerton, who redescribed this species under the name Lycosa
polita, states that it is found under stones in summer and under
leaves in winter. Its known range extends from New England
west to Indiana and south to District of Columbia.

Lycosa avara (L. a-va'ra). — The cephalothorax is marked
with a light median band, which begins at the second row of eyes
and extends to the hind end of the carapace; it is widest between
the third row of eyes and the median furrow where it is as wide as
the third row of eyes; it is somewhat abruptly contracted at the
anterior end of the median furrow, and then gradually narrows
to the posterior end of the carapace. The abdomen is clothed
with gray and brown hairs, and bears an indistinct lanceolate

640

Superfamily Argiopoidea

stripe. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 720, a. The
male measures one third inch in length; the female, one half inch.
The known range of the species extends from Massachusetts to
Texas.

Lycosa cinerea (L. ci-ne're-a). — The body is clothed with
white, gray, and black hairs intermixed in spots and streaks;
on the cephalothorax the spots radiate more or less from the
median furrow; on the abdomen the markings are very irregular.

This is a European species which has also a wide range in
this country. It is found on beaches and in sandy fields, where its
colour and markings are protective.

Genus PI RATA (Pi-ra'ta)

The anterior tibiae is armed with two or three pairs of spines
beneath, but the distal pair is never apical in position, although
there may be a subapical pair in the male. The anterior eyes are
in a straight or slightly procurved line; they are subequal or
the median are a little larger than the lateral. The labium is
longer than wide, with the basal excavations short. The epigy-
num of the female presents no true guide, but usually bears behind
two strongly chitnized lobes or tubercles upon which are the open-
ings of the spermathecae (Fig. 724).

\~s

Fig. 724. EPIGYNA OF SPECIES OF PIRATA <
a, P. minulus b, P. aspirans c, P. montattus </, P. Marxi
e, P. insularis. (, P. febriculosus (after Chambcrlin)

This genus includes spiders of small or of medium size, which
have upon the cephalothorax a pale band which is forked in the

641

Superfamily Argiopoidea

head-region, where there is also a central
pale stripe (Fig. 725). They live in damp
fields and in the vicinity of water, upon
which they run freely, and beneath which
they dive when alarmed. The egg-sacs are
white and spherical; the seam between the
two valves is less marked than on the
egg-sacs of Pardosa. The females drag
the egg-sacs after them attached to their
spinnerets, though when they are at rest
they often hold them in their chelic-
erae.

The better-known species that occur
in our fauna are separated by Chamberlin as follows:

Fig. 725.

CEPHALOTHORAX OF

PIRATA

KEY TO SPECIES OF PIRATA

A. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae armed with

but two teeth.

B. Cephalothorax less than one twelfth inch in length.

P. 643. P. minutus

BB. Cephalothorax one eighth inch or more in length. P. 644.

P. marxi

AA. Lower margin of the furrow of the cheliceras armed with

three teeth.

B. Cephalothorax with no submarginal light stripes in the

integument. P. 644. P. montanus

BB. Cephalothorax with submarginal light stripes.

C. Cephalothorax less than one twelfth inch in length,

or at most not longer.

D. All joints of legs except tarsi distinctly ringed

with black (female). P. 643. P. aspirans

DD. Femora dark at distal ends, other joints of legs

light, not at all marked with dark. P. 644.

P. humicolus

CC. Cephalothorax much more than one twelfth inch in

length.

D. Cephalothorax in life or when dry showing on each

side a marginal stripe of bright white hair.

E. A black marginal stripe below each pale lateral

stripe. P. 645. P. piraticus utabensis

642

Superfamily Argiopoidea

EE. No such black marginal line. P. 645.

P. febriculosus
DD. Cephalothorax showing no such stripe. P. 645.

P. insularis

THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF PIRATA

The species of Pirata resemble each other to a striking degree
in colour and markings. The cephalothorax is brown or blackish,
with a pale stripe on each side below the eyes, which extend back-
ward and inward, and merges with its fellow in the region of the
median furrow, the two being continued as a single median stripe
on the hinder part of the carapace (Fig. 725); in the head-region
a pale median stripe divides the darker area enclosed between
the two stripes so that this dark area is more or less V-shaped.
On each side of the thorax there is usually a submarginal light
stripe and frequently a marginal line of white hair. The abdomen
may or may not have a basal lanceolate stripe; it usually has a
row of white or yellow spots along each side of the dorsum; and
there are frequently several chevrons near the caudal end.

Pirata minuius (P. mi-nu'tus). — This is a small species, the
male measuring about one eighth inch or less in length; the female,
a little more than one eighth inch. The carapace is dark brown,
with a forked reddish yellow median band of the usual form and
on each side of the thoracic part a marginal light stripe; along this
stripe there is in life a marginal line of white hair. The abdomen
is black above, with or without a narrow lanceolate mark at base,
and clothed, with sparse light brown or grayish hair, with a series
of five or six spots of white hair along each side for the entire length
and several more or less distinct chevrons on the hinder part. The
chelicerae are armed with but two teeth. The form of the epigy-
num is shown in Fig. 724, a.

This species occurs in the northeastern United States.

Pirata aspirans (P. av-pi'rans). — The sides of the carapace
are dark brown crossed by radiating lines of black; there is a
pale forked median band of the usual form, and a marginal band
of yellow on each side limited below by a line of black, and extend-
ing forward only to opposite the third eyes. The abdomen is
black above, minutely punctuate with yellow at the sides; there
is a basal yellow lanceolate mark, on each side of which just

643

Superfamily Argiopoidea

behind its middle there is a small ovate yellow spot with a black
dot at the centre, and each side of its apex a larger triangular
yellow spot; on the hinder part of the abdomen there are several
yellow chevrons. The lateral tubercles of the epigynum are
widely rounded behind (Fig. 724, b). The female measures one
sixth inch in length.

The specimens from which this species was described were
taken at Washington, D. C.

Pirata humicolus (P. hu-mic'o-lus). — The sides of the cara-
pace are brown to black with lighter radiating lines; there is a
yellow median band of the usual form, and on each side of the
thoracic part a yellow supramarginal stripe, which is limited below
by a black marginal line; in life there is a marginal line of white
hair. The abdomen is brown above with a greenish tinge; it is
marked by a basal lanceolate median stripe, and with four rows,
two on each side, of spots clothed with white pubescence. The
female is one sixth inch in length; the male, about one eighth inch.

This species occurs in the Middle States.

Pirata montanus (P. mon-ta'nus). — The carapace is deep
brown or blackish, with a forked yellow median stripe of the usual
form; there are no lighter lateral stripes in the integument, but in
life there is on each side a marginal line of white hair. The ab-
domen is black above, with a reddish brown median lanceolate
stripe at base, and on each side of the apex of this stripe a reddish
spot; on the hinder part of the abdomen are several chevrons;
all of these markings may be indistinct; in life there is on each side
a series of about six spots of light yellow hair. The posterior
margin of the epigynum is nearly straight. (Fig. 724, c.)

This species has been found in the mountains of the Northern
States and in Utah.

Pirata marxi (P. marx'i). — The sides of the carapace are
brown or grayish black crossed by many radiating lines of black;
there is a forked yellow median band of the usual form, and on
each side a supramarginal yellow stripe limited below by a black
marginal line; there is no marginal stripe of white hair. The
abdomen is yellow with markings in black; there is a lanceolate
outline at base, and along each side a wavy or zigzag stripe, each
united with the lanceolate outline at its base and again at its
middle; and on the hinder part of the abdomen there are several
short black marks. Figure 724, d represents the epigynum. The

644

Superfamily Argiopoidea

female measures about three tenths inch in length; the male, about
one fourth inch.

This spider occurs in the northeastern United States and
south to the District of Columbia.

Pirata insularis (P. in-su-la'ris). — The sides of the carapace
are brown crossed by radiating lines of black; there is a median,
forked, reddish yellow band of the usual form, and on each side
of the thoracic part a yellowish supramarginal stripe limited
below by a narrow dark marginal stripe; there is no marginal line
of white hairs. The abdomen is blackish above, with a yellow
lanceolate median basal stripe; on each side of the apex of this
stripe there is a yellow spot; and on the hinder part several yellow
chevrons or nearly straight transverse marks; in life there is a
row of bunches of white hairs. The form of the epigynum is
shown in Fig. 724, e. The female measures one fourth inch in
length; the male, one sixth.

This species occurs in the Eastern and Middle States.

Pirata jcbriculosus (P. feb-ric-u-lo'sus). — The carapace is
dark brown or blackish with a reddish yellow, forked, median band
of the usual form and on each side of the thoracic part a moder-
ately wide yellow marginal band; in life there is a distinct line
of white hair along each lateral margin. The abdomen is black
or blackish brown above, with a narrow lanceolate reddish yellow
basal stripe which is margined with a line of black; outside of
this black line there is usually on each side in living individuals
a line of white hair or a row of white spots. The form of the
epigynum is shown in Fig. 724, /. The female measures about
three tenths inch in length.

This is a widely distributed species.

Pirata piraiicus (P. pi-ra'ti-cus). — This is a European species
of which Chamberlin describes a variety found in Utah, under the
name ntahensis. This species can be separated from our common
forms by the characters given in the table above. The female
measures one fourth inch in length.

Genus ALLOCOSA (Al-lo-co'sa) '

This genus is closely allied to Lycosa; but the species included
in it differ from Lycosa in having the cephalothorax glabrous or
very nearly so, smooth and shining, dark in colour, and without a

645

Superfamily Argiopoidea

distinct light-coloured median stripe. The epigynum is simple,
presenting no true guide, or but weakly furrowed, the spermathecae
opening free posteriorly. The bulb of the male palpus bears an
apophysis which is exterior in position.

Only four species are known to occur in our fauna. These
are separated by Chamberlin as follows:

KEY TO SPECIES OF ALLOCOSA

A. All joints of legs except femora clear yellow, without any

darker annulations or markings except at the ends of the

tibiae of the fourth legs. P. 646. A. rugosa

AA. Legs beyond femora more or less distinctly annulate with

dark.

B. Anterior row of eyes longer than the second; anterior

median eyes not more than one fifth their diameter

apart; anterior tibiae armed neither in front nor behind,

and the ventral spines minute. P. 647.

A. noctuabunda

BB. Anterior row of eyes shorter than the second; anterior

median eyes their radius or nearly so apart; anterior

tibiae armed in front and behind and the ventral spines

longer.

C. Femora of first legs solid black above, a sub-basal

brown band on the others. P. 646. A. funerea

CC. Femora of first legs not solid black, marked with three

black rings. P. 646. A. parva

Allocosa rugosa (A. ru-go'sa). — This is the only Northern
species; it has been found in Maryland, Pennsylvania, and
the District of Columbia. The male measures a little less than
one fifth inch in length; the female a little less than one
fourth inch.

Allocosa funerea (A. fu-ne're-a).— - This is the best-known of
the Southern species. It has been found in Alabama, Georgia,
and Louisiana. The female measures a little more than one fifth
inch in length.

Allocosa parva (A. par'va). — This is our largest species;
the male measures one fourth inch in length; the female, one third

646

Superfamily Argiopoidea

inch. It has been found in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and
Utah.

Allocosa noctuabunda (A. noc-tu-a-bun'da). — This species
occurs in the Gulf States.

Genus SCHIZOCOSA (Schiz-o-co'sa)

This genus has been separated from Lycosa on account of
peculiar features of the external reproductive organs. In the
female the lateral extensions of the guide of the epigynum are
divided so as to be double (Fig. 726). In the male the embolus
is distinctly elbowed and the terminal apophysis of the bulb of

Fig. 726. EPIGYNA OF SCHIZOCOSA
a, S. ocreata. b, S. bilineata c, S. saltalrix (after Chamberlin)

the palpus is conspicuously elevated and usually more or less
produced into a horn-like process extending beyond the front mar-
gin of the alveolus.

This genus includes spiders of medium or of small size. In
them "the median light band of the cephalothorax widens uni-
formly from behind forward to the eyes; it is constricted in front
of the dorsal groove, but otherwise its margins are nearly straight.
The abdomen in all is marked above by a broad light band which
is nearly or fully as wide as the dorsum and which extends over
its entire length from base to spinnerets; this band encloses at
base a lanceolate outline, and behind in some also^ a series of
transverse angular lines of varying degrees of distinctness; sides
of the abdomen dark in colour, black at least across anterior lateral
angles; the venter is pale. The cocoon is spherical, without
any seam at the equator, and is white in colour" (Chamberlin).

647

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Three species have been described from our fauna; these are
separated by Chamberlin as follows:

TABLE OF SPECIES OF SCHIZOCOSA

Females

A. Sternum yellow, with two dark lines or rows of dark spots
converging posteriorly. P. 648. S. bilineata

AA. Sternum dark, not marked as in 5. bilineata.

B. Septal portion of the guide of the epigynum very broad
immediately in front of the transverse arms, narrowing
anteriorly where it is not sinuous or bent; the median
portion between anterior and posterior divisions of
arms very narrow, much narrower than the septum in
front of arms (Fig. 726, a); sternum usually black
except marginally. P. 648. S. ocreata

BB. Septal portion of guide sinuous or Dent near the anterior
end; median portion between anterior and posterior divi-
sions of arms wide, wider than septum in front of trans-
verse arms (Fig. 726, c); sternum usually reddish brown.
P. 648. 5. saltatrix

Males

A. First tibiae clothed with dense hair standing out in brush-
like form.
B. Legs yellow, without dark annuli or markings. P. 648.

.S. bilineata

BB. Legs annulate with dark. P. 648. S. ocreata

AA. First tibiae not so clothed. P. 648. S. saltatrix

Scbi{ocosa bilineata (S. bi-lin-e-a'ta). — This is essentially
a Northern species having been found from Connecticut to Kansas,
and south to the District of Columbia. The male measures about
one fifth inch in length; the female, a little more than one fourth
inch.

Schiiocosa ocreata (S. oc-re-a'ta). — This species is widely
distributed in the Southeastern States; its range extends west to
Kansas and north to New York. The length of the body is about
one third inch.

Schiiocosa saltatrix (S. sal-ta'trix). — This species resembles
the preceding in size and in distribution.

648

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus TRAB/EA (Tra-bae'a)

The face is subquadrate, not at all or barely wider below than
above; the sides are straight; the anterior row of eyes is very
strongly procurved; and the anterior median eyes are much closer
to each other than to the anterior lateral eyes.

Only a single species is found in our fauna; and this is one
of the smallest of the Lycosidae.

Trabea aurantiaca (T. au-ran-ti'a-ca). — The female is only
one eighth inch or a little more in length; and the male is less than
one eighth inch long. The cephalothorax is black or blackish
brown, with a yellow median band which begins just back of the
second row of eyes and narrows to a point at the median furrow,
a yellow spot behind just under the front end of the abdomen,
and a narrow yellow stripe on each side. The abdomen is brownish
orange with a yellow spot in the middle tapering to a row of smaller
spots behind.

This species occurs in New England, New York, and south to
the District of Columbia.

Genus SOS1LAUS (So-sil'a-us)

This genus differs from all other members of the Lycosidae
found in our fauna in having the anterior tibiae armed below with
five pairs of long slanting spines; and the metatarsi are armed
with four pairs of similar spines.
The four anterior eyes are subcon-
tiguous and are in a gently recurved
row; the anterior median eyes are
at least twice as large as the an-
terior lateral (Fig. 727).

Sosilaus spiniger (S. spin'i-ger).
— This is the only known species
of the genus and of it only a single
specimen is known; this was taken Fig. 727.

in Louisiana. It is a male and face of sosnvus spiniger

(after Simon)

measures a little less than one sixth

inch in length. The cephalothorax is "fulvoriifous, smooth
and subglabrous, a narrow marginal fuscous line and the pars
thoracica marked irregularly with short radiating stripes. Ab-
domen fusco-testaceous, paler in front and below."

649

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus PAR DOS A (Par-do'sa)

The labium is at least as broad as long and with the basal
excavations short, only very rarely more than one fourth of the
length of the labium (Fig. 728). The face is subquadrate, straight
on each side (Fig. 729). The anterior row of eyes is shorter
than the second and is procurved; the eyes of this row are small
and subequal or with the median a little larger. The anterior
tibiae are armed with three pairs of spines, of which the basal and
median pairs are much longer than the diameter of the segment.

The Pardosas are spiders of small or of medium size and are
exceedingly active. They are vagabond spiders, constructing no
retreat, and using their silk only in the construction of the egg-
sac. They are often found in
large numbers in damp fields, a
few are semiaquatic like Pirata.
Almost all of the species live only
one year; the
young hibernate
andbecomeadult
in early spring.
I have found

Fig. 728. LABIUM OF Fig. 729.

PARDOSA ATRA FACE OFSPARDOSA

Fig. 73°-
FEMALE WITH EGG-SAC

them with their egg-sacs in May; they were lurking under stones
but were very active when disturbed.

The egg-sac is depressed, lenticular in form; it is rarely
white, usually yellowish or greenish, sometimes of a deep blue;
there is a distinct seam along the edge between the two valves,
which is torn open when the spiderlings are ready to emerge.
The egg-sac is attached to the spinnerets (Fig. 730) but is held
well under the abdomen, more so than is represented in the figure,
which is from a photograph of a dead specimen.

The genus Pardosa is a large one, nearly a score of species

6^0

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are known from the United States alone. Of these, those named
below are the more common and more widely distributed
ones. The following tables for separating these species h>ive been
taken from more extended tables given by Chamberlin in his
Revision C90).

TABLE OF THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF PARDOSA

Females

A. Epigynal plate or area widest at anterior end, distinctly
narrowing posteriori)'; guide wider anteriorly than toward
apex (Fig. 731, a). P. 656. P. xerampelina

AA. Not as above.

B. Epigynum presenting each side of the guide posteriorly
a sharply delimited, relatively small fovea as long as
wide, the anterior region of epigynum scarcely de-
pressed. (Fig. 731, b). P. 655. P. stemalis
BB. Not as above.

C. Lateral furrows with the shallow anterior fossae short
and narrow, behind these deepening and abruptly
widely expanding, becoming widest near middle of
epigynum, septum of guide elevate, its more de-
pressed transverse arms extending into excavations
in the inner face of the lateral ridges.
D. Transverse arms of guide bending backward, septum
of guide widest at posterior end, becoming gradu-
ally narrower toward the anterior end, its sides
substraight or but little curving (Fig. 731, c).
P. 656. P. grcenlandica

DD. Not so. (Fig. 731, d, e). P. 656. P. mod'ica

CC. Not as described under C above.

D. Face of septum of guide abruptly expanded behind
into a large nearly circular plate, the diameter
of which is clearly greater than the length of the
part of epigynum in front of it. (Fig. 731,/).
P. 657. P. emertoni

DD. Not so.

E. Transverse arms of guide narrowest mesallv.
widening toward their outer ends. (Fig. 731,
g). P. 655. P. lapidicina

651

Superfamily Argiopoidea

EE. Not so.

F. Sides of epigynum protruding into an angle
in front of middle; no distinctly defined lateral
ridges in middle region of sides, the sides gradu-
ally convexly rounding from middle to outer
margin (Fig. 731, h). P. 653. P. saxatilis
FF. Sides of epigynum not angulate in front of
middle; more or less distinct lateral ridges along
middle region (Fig. 731, i). P. 654. P. milvina

Fig. 731. EPIGYNA OF SPECIES OF PARDOSA

a, P. xerampelina b, P. slernalis c, P. grwnlandica d, P. modica (typical)

e.P.modicabrunnca j,P.cmcrlon g,P.lapidicina h, P. saxatilis i, P. milvina (after Charaberlin)

652

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Males

A. Scopus (i. e. the median apophysis of the bulb of the palpus)

short and stout, not at all or but slightly longer than

broad.

B. Anterior depressed lobe of bulb separated into two

furrows by an elevated narrow fold extending from

above obliquely downward and outward, externally

from its lower end are two hooked tentacula, and at

the corner opposite its upper end a lamellate, indexed

chitinous angle (Fig. 732, a). P. 655. P. lapidicina

BB. Not so.

C. Embolus extending across bulb almost to outer side

of alveolus (Fig. 732, b). P. 656. P. modica

CC. Apex of embolus scarcely extending beyond scopus.

P. 656. P. grccnlandica

AA. Scopus several times longer than broad.

B. Scopus extending obliquely forward and outward quite
to or some distance beyond margin of alveolus.
C. Scopus curving forward with convexity external and
apex directed forward. P. 657. P. emertoni

CC. Not so.

D. Embolus strongly bent into an S-shape; scopal
spur turned forward at apex (Fig. 732, c). P. 655.

P. stcrnalis

DD. Embolus but little curved, extending nearly straight

transversely; scopal spur turned backward at apex

(Fig. 732, d). P. 653. P. saxatilis

BB. Not so (Fig. 732, e). P. 654. P. milvina

THE MORE COMMON SPECIES OF PARDOSA

The following notes are merely supplementary to the data
given in the above tables, which should be used for the separation
of species.

Pardosa saxatilis (P. sax-at'i-lis).— The length of the body
is about one fifth inch. The cephalothorax is deep brown or black,
with a median reddish yellow band, which is stronglx notched on
each side midway between the eyes and the median furrow,
and narrowed behind the furrow; there is also on each side a
yellow stripe near the margin of the carapace; these stripes are

653

Superfarnily Argiopoidea

often obscure in the male. The abdomen is dark gray above, with
an indistinct light lanceolate stripe on the basal half, and on
each side of the apex of this stripe a light spot with a minute
black dot at its centre; on the posterior part of the dorsum there
is a series of light cross marks, each formed by the confluence of
from two to four spots similar to those at the sides of the apex

*$fc*iS=tfS£S^*

Fig. 732-

PALPI OF SPECIES

OF PARDOSA

a, P. lapidicina

b, P. modica brunnca

c, P. stcmalis

d, P. saxatilis
c, P. milvina
(after Chamberlin)

of the basal stripe. The form of the epigynum is shown in Fig.
731, h; that of the palpus of the male in Fig. 732, d.

This species is also known under the following names: Pardosa
albopatella, Pardosa minima, and Pardosa annulata. It occurs
throughout the eastern half of the United States.

Pardosa milvina (P. mil-vi'na).— - This species very closely
resembles the preceding in colour and markings but is a little
larger, the body being about one fourth inch in length. The two

654

Superfamily Argiopoidea

species can be best separated by the differences in the form of
the epigynum and the palpus of the male as indicated in the
tables. Figure 731, i represents the epigynum of this species; and
Fig. 732, e the palpus of the male.

This species is the Pardosa nigropalpis of Emerton. It occurs
throughout the eastern half of the United States.

Pardosa sternahs (P. ster-na'lis). — In the female the cepha-
lothorax is black above with a median brown band beginning
back of the eyes and narrowed to a line on the posterior declivity
of the carapace; there is also a light brown band along each
lateral border. The abdomen is blackish above, with a yellow or
pale brown median lanceolate stripe at base, a pair of spots near
the apex of the lanceolate stripe, and four or five pairs of spots
forming chevrons on the hinder part of the dorsum. The form
of the epigynum is shown in Fig. 731 , b.

In the male the cephalothorax is darker, and the median band
obscure. The abdomen is entirely black above, without markings.
The form of the palpus is shown in Fig. 732, c.

The male measures a little less than one fourth inch in length;
the female a little more. This species is common throughout
most of the United States west of the Mississippi River. In
Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and California it is very abundant,
being far more common than any other lycosid. It frequents
especially open meadows and the grassy borders of streams. It
is rare in wooded districts.

Pardosa lapidicina (P. lap-i-di-ci'na). This is a somewhat
larger species, the male measuring one fourth inch in length;
the female, one third inch or more. The whole body is covered
with black hairs which obscure the few light markings. The
lighter median band of the cephalothorax is sometimes indistinct;
it begins between the posterior eyes, where it is narrow, and is
abruptly widened between the eyes and the median furrow, and
is constricted in front of this furrow; on each side of the cepha-
lothorax there is a row of irregular light spots. On the abdomen
there is a black-margined lanceolate mark at base, followed on
each side by a row of irregular pale spots; in some individuals
there are irregular light chevrons near the hind end of the abdomen.
The epigynum is represented in Fig. 731, g; the male palpus, in
Fig. 732, a.

This is a common species in the Northern States, but it is

655

Superfamily Argiopoidea

found also in the West and in the South. It occurs among stones
along streams and also in hot and dry places.

Pardosa xerampelina (P. xer-am-pel'i-na). — The cephalo-
thorax is deep brown or black above, with a median reddish brown
band, which is widest about the median furrow; there are no
distinct lateral stripes, but sometimes a few obscure light spots
above the margin on each side posteriorly. The abdomen is
black above or nearly so; there is a lanceolate basal mark of brown;
the basal stripe is joined at two points on each side near its apex
by the ends of a V-shaped mark, the apex of which is directed
laterally; on the hinder part there are several, more or less distinct
chevrons. The epigynum of the female (Fig. 731, a) differs from
that of our other species it being widest in front. The female
measures one third inch in length; the male is smaller.

This is a Northern species which occurs especially in moun-
tainous regions.

Pardosa grcclandica (P. grcen-land'i-ca). — The cephalothorax
is black or nearly so, with a lighter, brown, median band beginning
only a little in front of the dorsal furrow and narrowing to a line
on the posterior declivity of the carapace; from the front of the
median band a horn-shaped yellow mark extends outward and
forward on each side toward the corresponding eye; these marks
are sometimes obscure or absent; there is a row of three or four
curved light marks above the margin on each side. The abdomen
is covered above with brown hair, with bunches of white hair
forming a row of white spots along each side. The form of the
epigynum is shown in Fig. 731, c. The female measures a little
more than four tenths of an inch; the male, a little less.

This species was first described from Greenland; but its range
extends south to the White Mountains and to Colorado and Utah.
In Oregon and Washington it is the dominant species of Lycosa.

Pardosa modica (P. mod'i-ca). — The cephalothorax is dark
brown, with a reddish brown median stripe, which is widest just
behind the third row of eyes, constricted at the front end of the
dorsal groove, and again immediately behind it; this stripe is
divided in front of the groove by a dark middle line, widest in
front and extending back as far as the dorsal groove; there is a
light stripe on each side extending under the eyes to the clypeus.
The abdomen is brownish black above, with a reddish brown basal
lanceolate stripe, and a series of more or less distinct chevrons

656

Superfamily Argiopoidea

on the hinder half. The male measures one third inch in length;
the female a little more. This is a variable species; Fig. 731, d
represents the epigynum of the typical form and Fig. 73 1 , ^ that
of the variety P. modica brunnea. Figure 732, b represents the
palpus of P. modica brunnea.

This is a Northern species whose range extends from Green-
land south into the northern part of the United States from New
England to Oregon.

Pardosa emertoni (P. em-er-to'ni). — The cephalothorax is
yellow with two brown stripes which unite and become black
between the middle eyes and there is a fine black line near the
edge of the thorax on each side. The abdomen has a light middle
band not much widened in front, where it includes a light stripe
with dark brown edges, which tapers to a point about the middle
of the abdomen. The hinder part of the middle stripe is indis-
tinctly divided into four or five segments; at the sides of the middle
stripe the abdomen is dark brown or black in small irregular spots
and becomes gradually lighter toward the sides. The epigynum
is represented in Fig. 731,/. The length of the body is about one
fourth inch.

This is a Northern species whose range extends south to the
District of Columbia. It was originally described by Emerton
under the name Pardosa pallida; but as the name pallida was pre-
occupied, Chamberlin has proposed the name emertoni for the
species.

Family OXYOPID^E (Ox-y-op'i-dse)

The Lynx-spiders

The lynx-spiders are so called because some species chase
their prey with great rapidity over herbage and the foliage of
trees and shrubs; they even jump from branch to branch like the
attids; but other species lie in wait near flowers and spring upon
insects that visit the flowers.

The legs are long, with three tarsal claws but without scopulx;
the trochanters are not notched as in the two preceding families
or but slightly so. The eyes are eight in number, dark in colour,
and unequal in size; the anterior median being very small. The
anterior row of eyes is strongly recurved; the posterior row, pro-
curved; so that there may appear to be four rows of eyes of two
each (Fig. 733). The abdomen tapers to a point behind.

657

Superfamily Argiopoidea

These are diurnal, hunting spiders,
which make no use of webs for capturing
their prey. They do not carry their egg-
sacs about as do the members of the two
preceding families; but fasten them to a
ft J? branch or to a leaf or suspend them in a

little web which they spin for this purpose.
This family is feebly represented in the
North; but some of the species are quite
common in the South.
Three genera are represented in our fauna; these can be
separated by the following table:

Fig. 733.
EYES OF OXYOPES

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE OXYOPID/€

A. Posterior row of eyes slightly procurved; posterior lateral

eyes much farther from the anterior lateral eyes than from

the posterior median eyes; lower margin of the chelicerae

unarmed. P. 658. Peucetia

AA. Posterior row of eyes strongly procurved; posterior lateral

eyes about as far from the anterior lateral eyes as from the

posterior median eyes; lower margin of the chelicera with

one tooth.

B. Four posterior eyes equidistant; quadrangle limited

by the posterior median eyes and the anterior lateral

eyes longer than wide. P. 659. Oxyopes

BB. Four posterior eyes not equidistant. P. 660.

Hamataliva

Genus PEUCETIA (Peu-cet'i-a)

The members of this genus can be recognized by the slight
procurvature of the posterior row of eyes (Fig. 734). They are
quite large spiders and are usually of
a beautiful green colour, with red spots
and black spines. The following is our
only species.

Peucetia viridans (P. vir'i-dans).
— This is a common species in the
Southern States, where it often at-
tracts attention on account of its

Fig. 734. EYES OF PEUCETIA

658

Superfamily Argiopoidea

beautiful bright transparent green colour marked with red spots
and black spines.

The adult female measures three fourths of an inch in length,
the male a little less; the eye-space is red, and there are irregular
red spots, which vary in number and size, along the middle of the
cephalothorax, and on each side; on the abdomen there are two
rows of red spots which are sometimes united into a stripe, and

Fig. 735- PEUCETIA VIKIDAXS AND EGG-SAC

a variable number of pairs of yellowish, oval, oblique spots,
edged with brown or red. The legs are pale and conspicuously
marked with black dots, and sometimes with red lines and dots.

The spiders reach maturity in the latter part of the summer.
At this time the female makes its egg-sac. This is hemispherical
in outline, with small projecting tufts (Fig. y^s): it is suspended
by threads among twigs or leaves. After the egg-sac is completed,
the female remains near it guarding it. The young emerge from
the egg-sac in the autumn.

Genus OXYOPES (Ox-y-o'pes)

In this genus the posterior row of eyes is strongly procurved
and the eyes of which it is composed are equidistant from each

659

Superfamily Argiopoidea

other (Fig. 733). These are smaller spiders than those of the
preceding genus, and the colour and markings are very variable.
The egg-sac is very different from that of Peuiicia; it is discoid,
very flat, and, according to Simon, is strongly fastened like that
of Philodromus, but according to F. O. P. Cambridge it is spun up
in an irregular web amongst the leaves and twigs. Seven species
have been described from the United States.

Our four better known species are separated by Mr. Banks as
follows; the other three are found in the Far West.

A. Femora with a black line on the under side. 0. salticus
AA. Femora without a black line on the under side.

B. Abdomen light with black side and median stripes.

0. scalaris
BB. Abdomen dark, with a few light spots.

C. Dorsum of cephalothorax straight, about as high in

the middle as in the eye-region. 0. cinerea

CC. Dorsum of cephalothorax higher in the eye-region

than in the middle. 0. rufipes

Oxyopes salticus (O. sal'ti-cus). — A very common species in
the Southern States, where it is found in early summer running
on low bushes.

Oxyopes scalaris (O. sca-la'ris). — This species has been found
from North Carolina northward into New England.

Oxyopes cinerea (O. ci-ne're-a). This is also found in New
England.

Oxyopes rufipes (O. ru'fi-pes). — A common species in Wash-
ington State.

Genus HAMATALIVA* (Ham-a-tal'i-va)

In addition to the characters given in the table of genera above
it may be noted that the clypeus is very wide; in other words the
eyes are remote from the front edge of the clypeus. These spiders
are found in the extreme southern part of our territory.

Hamataliva grisea (H. gris'e-a). — The cephalothorax is a
yellowish red-brown, with the eye area darker. The abdomen
is thickly clothed with brown and white hairs. In the original

* The original spelling of this name as Hamataliwa (Keyserling '87 p. 458) is obviously a typo-
graphical error; on page 489 of the same paper it is spelled as above.

660

Superfamily Argiopoidea

description the only locality given is North America. I collected
the species at Miami, Fla. This is the only species reported from
the United States; but 1 collected what appears to be a distinct
species at Austin, Tex.

Family ATTIDiE (At'ti'dae)
The Jumping Spiders

The jumping spiders are of medium or small size, with a short
body and stout legs furnished with two tarsal claws. They are
common on plants, logs, fences, and the sides of buildings. They
are apt to attract attention by their peculiar appearance; their
ihort, stout legs, bright colours, conspicuous eyes, quick jumping
movements being very different from those of other spiders.

The members of this family can be easily recognized by the
characteristic arrangement of their eyes and the relative size of
the different pairs of eyes (Fig. 736). The eyes occupy the whole
length of the head-part of the
cephalothorax, and limit a quad-
rilateral area, which is termed
the ocular quadrangle. The an-
terior eyes are situated on the
vertical face and are large; the
anterior median eyes are very
large. The posterior median
eyes, which are usually desig-
nated as the small eyes, are very
small, often difficult to see, and
are situated in front of the posterior lateral eyes, sometimes
called the dorsal eyes, forming a transverse row distinct from
them; the eyes of these spiders are therefore in three rows. This
arrangement recalls that of the eyes of the Lycosidae, but in
that family the eyes of the second row are large. The eyes of
the jumping spiders are all of the diurnal type.

In a small group of genera, represented in our fauna only
by Lyssomanes, the anterior lateral eyes are situated, behind the
anterior median eyes, thus forming a second row of eyes (Fig.
737); the eyes of these spiders are therefore in four rows, each
row consisting of two eyes.

The body is usually thickly covered with hair or with scales.

661

Fig. 736.
EYES OF A JUMPING SPIDER
a, cephalothorax from
b, face and chelicera;

Superfamily Argiopoidea

and many species are brightly coloured, ,'even iridescent; but
unfortunately the appearance of a specimen is usually greatly
changed when it is put in alcohol. In certain members of this
family the body is longer than in the typical forms, and ant-like in
appearance.

The sexes differ little in size; but often they differ much in
colour and in the form of the clothing of hairs and scales. In
many cases the males have peculiar bunches of hairs on the front
legs. At the mating time, the males of some species have been
observed to dance before the females, and to assume singular
attitudes, holding their legs extended sidewise or over their
heads in such a way as to display their ornaments (Fig. 738),

or moving them about so as to attract attention.

These curious habits have been carefully described

by Mr. and Mrs. Peckham ('89 and '90).

The jumping spiders are hunters, pursuing

their prey or springing

upon it when it comes

near them. They

move sidewise or

backward with great

ease, and can jump a

long distance. They

spin a dragline. I

have seen them jump

away from the side of

a building, to catch

an insect flying near,

and quickly regain

their position by
means of the dragline. They make no webs except nests in
which they hide in winter or when moulting or laying eggs.
These nests are sac-like in form, composed of several envelopes,
and usually furnished with two openings.

The egg-sacs are frail; as they are made within the sac-like
nest, there is not the necessity for a dense cocoon that there is
with most other spiders. The cocoon is usually lens-shaped and
suspended, like a hammock, from the walls of the nest. There
may be several cocoons within a single nest; but usually there
is only one. With the species that we have observed, the eggs

662

Fig. 737-

LYSSOMANES

VIRIDIS

Fig. 738.
MALE OF PELLENES VIRIDIPES DIS-
PLAYING ORNAMENTS (after Peckham)

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are laid early in the season, and the young soon hatch. They arc
guarded by the parent female until they disperse. On the ap-
proach of winter the young make the sac-like nests in which to
pass the winter.

The Attidas is one of the largest and most widely distributed
of the families of spiders; representatives of it are found in all
parts of the world except in the polar regions and several thousand
species have been described. They are especially abundant in
the tropics; and nearly three hundred species, representing more
than forty genera, are known to occur in America north of Mexico.
A revision of the American species of the family has been
published by Mr. and Mrs. Peckham (09) in which are given
detailed descriptions of all of our known species; this work is
indispensable to one making an exhaustive study of this family,
and has been freely used in a revision of the following account,
which was mostly written before the appearance of the work of
the Peckhams.

1 have omitted descriptions of some Mexican genera, repre-
sentatives of which are found in this country only along our
southern border, also of some genera represented only by one
or two rare species; and in case of the larger genera, it has seemed
best to include accounts of only the more common species.

The genera of this family are grouped by Simon into three,
somewhat artificial sections, which are distinguished by the nature
of the armature of the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae,
as follows:

I. With the lower margin of the furrow of
the chelicerae armed with several, iso-
lated teeth forming a series (Fig. 739,
a). Attid/e Pluridentati

II. With the lower margin of the furrow of the
chelicera? armed with a single tooth or
unarmed (Fig. 739, c).

Attid/e Unidentati
III. With the lower margin of the furrow of
the chelicerae armed with a large tooth
which is compressed so as to. form a keel,
and divided into two points by a notch,
rarely truncate or furnished with a serrula
(Fig. 739, />)• Attid/e Fissidentati

663

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Nearly all of our genera belong to the Attidas Unidentati;
and of those that belong to the other two sections according to
Simon there are several that do not clearly exhibit the distinctive
character of the section in which they are placed.

The following North American genera are placed by Simon
in the Attidae Pluridentati: Lyssomanes, Thiodina, Ballus, and
Synemosyna. In our species of Lyssomanes (Fig. 740), the lower
margin of the chelicera is armed with three isolated teeth and a
large fissidentate tooth. In the examples of Thiodina that I
have studied the chelicera is armed with a single fissidentate
tooth (Fig. 741, and Fig. 742). Of this genus the Peckhams state:
'The teeth on the lower border of the falces are exceedingly
variable; in some the tooth is compound, in others single and in a
few there are several teeth. Even the two falces in the same
specimen are occasionally unlike." Of the genus Synemosyna, in
S. formica the chelicera? of both sexes are fissidentate (Fig. 743,
and Fig. 744). Of the genus Ballus 1 have not seen specimens;
but the Peckhams state that here the chelicera? are pluridentate.

Among the Attidas Unidentate I found that Wala palmarum
is fissidentate; and the Peckhams state that this is also true of
Icius wickbamii.

Under the section Attidas Fissidentati are included by Simon
the following North American genera: Mavia, Fuentes, Zygoballus,
and Peckhamia. These are all truly fissidentate except Fuentes
tceniola, which is unidentate, and which has been made the type
of the genus Metacyrba. Fuentes lineatus has been made the type
of the new genus Onondaga, and there is left no species of Fuentes
in our fauna.

For the reasons above given, it has not seemed wise to attempt
to separate in the table of genera the three sections based on
the nature of the armature of the lower margin of the chelicerae,
but the sequence of genera adopted in the text following the table
follows closely that used by Simon.

TABLE OF GENERA OF THE ATTID/E

A. The posterior margin of the cephalothorax and the pedicel
covered by the abdomen; the second and third coxae of
each side contiguous. Not ant-like spiders.
B. Eyes in four rows. P. 669 Lyssomanes

BB. Eyes in three rows.

664

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Fig. 73Q-
THE THREE TYPES OF CHELICER.-E

pluridi-ntatc b, fissidcntate
c, unidcntate (after Simon)

Fig. 740.
CHELICERA OF LYSSOMANES

Fig. 741.

CHELICERA OF THIODINA

PUERPERA, MALE

Fig. 74*-

( III.LICER.E OF THIODINA PUERPERA

I I MALE

Fig. 743.

I'lll'.I.h IK \ 111 s>, NKMOSYNA
FORMICA, MALE

Fig. 744.

c III.I.H IK 1 ii, v, \|.;md ,\\ FORMICA, FEMALE

66,

Superfamily Argiopoidea

C. Tibia and patella of the third leg shorter than tibia
and patella of the fourth leg.
D. Small eyes situated midway between the anterior
lateral and the posterior lateral eyes, or nearly so.
E. Sternum not greatly narrowed in front, the
anterior coxae being separated by a distance
greater than the width of the labium.
F. Quadrangle of eyes occupying less than one half
of the length of the cephalothorax.
G. Quadrangle of eyes narrower behind than
before.
H. Chelicerae unarmed below. P. 675.

Euophrys
HH. Chelicerae with one tooth below. P. 674.

Stoidis

GG. Quadrangle of eyes as wide behind as before

or wider.

H. Abdomen marked with longitudinal white

stripes.

I. Abdomen with two white stripes (IVala

palmarum, male). P. 679 Wala

II. Abdomen with three white stripes. P. 688

Phlegra

HH. Abdomen not marked with longitudinal

bands.

I. Abdomen marked with transverse white

bands.

J. Cephalothorax much longer than wide.

K. Quadrangle of eyes occupying much

less than one half the cephalothorax.

Posterior margin of anterior eyes

in a straight or slightly procurved

line. P. 676. Salticus

KK. Quadrangle of eyes occupying about

one half the cephalothorax; posterior

margin of anterior eyes in a recurved

line. (Dendryphantes capitaius.) P.

684. Dendryphantes

J J . Cephalothorax slightly longer than wide.

P. 671. Ballus

666

Superfamily Argiopoidea

II. Abdomen not marked with transverse
white bands, except sometimes a whitish
band at base.
J. Posterior three pairs of legs white, trans-
lucent, without marks. P. 679.

Wala
J J. Posterior three pairs of legs not uniform
white. P. 673. Icius

FF. Quadrangle of eyes occupying more than one
half of the length of the cephalothorax.
G. Thorax sloping from just behind the posterior
eyes; posterior eyes prominent; total length
2.5 mm. P. 675. Neon

GG. Thorax nearly flat in the first half then sloping
abruptly; posterior eyes not prominent.
Total length 5 -+- mm. P. 676. Sitticus
EE. The sternum narrowed in front so that the anterior
coxas are separated by a distance less than the
width of the labium.
F. Tibia of the first legs with four pairs of spines
beneath.
G. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera
armed with a single tooth. P. 677. Hyctia
GG. Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera?
armed with a compound tooth.
H. Abdomen with four longitudinal white lines
on a dark ground. P. 695.

Onondaga
HH. Abdomen without white lines. P. 694.

Mi vi \
FF. Tibia of the first legs with less than four pairs
of spines beneath.
G. Tibia of the first legs with two pairs of spines
beneath or with less. P. (x>4.

Metacyrba

GG. Tibia of the first legs with three pairs of

spines beneath and some anterior lateral

spines.

H. First pair of legs stouter than the second

pair. P. 678. Marpissa

667

Superfamily Argiopoidea

HH. First two pairs of legs similar. P. 693.

Plexippus
DD. Small eyes much more remote from the posterior
eyes than from the anterior eyes.
E. Ocular quadrangle much wider behind than before.
F. Cephalothorax very wide, the thoracic part*
shorter than the head-part or at all events
not longer.
G. Abdomen marked with white in addition to
the basal band. P. 696. Zygoballus

GG. Abdomen not marked with white except a
basal band. P. 687. Agassa

FF. Thorax longer than head. Pass to F. and FF.
under EE. immediately below.
EE. The sides of the ocular quadrangle nearly parallel.
F. Cephalothorax more or less depressed behind
the posterior eyes and furnished with a median
furrow situated behind the eyes but before
the middle of the thoracic part.
G. Cephalothorax high, heavy, and convex; first
legs heavy and very hairy, often fringed;
large species, rarely less than .28 inch in
length. P. 680. Phidippus

GG. Cephalothorax not heavy; first legs not espe-
cially hairy; small species, rarely more than
.24 inch in length.
H. Third leg as long as or longer than fourth.
P. 674. Talavera

HH. Fourth leg longer than the third.

I. Posterior three pairs of legs white, trans-
lucent, without marks. P. 679. Wala
II. Posterior three pairs of legs not uniform
white. P. 684. Dendryphantes

FF. Cephalothorax not depressed behind the eyes;
median furrow remote from the eyes, very small,
obsolete.
G. Cephalothorax narrow and long; no spines
on the tibia of the first legs. P. 679.

Admestina

* In descriptions of Attidae that part of the cephalothorax behind the posterior eyes is regarded
as the thoracic part, and the remainder us the cephalic part.

668

Superfamily Argiopoidea

GG. Cephalothorax short and thick; two or three
pairs of spines on the tibia of the first legs.
P. 686. Sassacus

CC. Tibia and patella of the third leg as long as or longer
than the tibia and patella of the fourth leg.
D. Quadrangle of eyes wider in front than behind.
P. 687. Habrocestum

DD. Quadrangle of eyes with sides parallel or wider be-
hind than in front.
E. Tibia of first pair of legs with four bulbous setae.
P. 670. Thiodina

EE. Tibia of first pair of legs without four bulbous
setae. P. 688. Pellenes

AA. The posterior margin of the cephalothorax and the pedicel
of the abdomen visible from above. Ant-like spiders.
B. Hind part of thorax narrow and with parallel sides, thus
adding to the apparent length of the pedicel. P. 671.

Synemosyna

B B. Hind part of thorax not narrowed so as to add to apparent

length of pedicel.

C. Quadrangle of eyes more than one half the length of

the cephalothorax. P. 699. Peckhamia

CC. Quadrangle of eyes less than one half the length of the

cephalothorax. P. 672. Myrmarchne

Genus LYSSOMANES (Lys-som'a-nes)

This genus is sharply distinguished from all
others represented in our fauna by the position
of the anterior lateral eyes behind the anterior
median eyes and occupying an area but little if
any wider than that occupied by the anterior
median eyes, the eyes being in four rows, each
row consisting of two eyes (Fig. 745). Only a
single species has been found in the United States.

Lyssomanes viridis (L. vir'i-dis).— ■ This is a
light green spider common in the Southern States.
The male is one fourth inch in length; the female
one third. There are four black tubercles on the
head; the first pair of tubercles bear the second

1 i 745.

I.\ SSOM W!>
VIRIDIS

669

Superfarr.ily Argiopoidea

and third rows of eyes; and the second pair, the fourth row.
There are usually four pairs of black dots on the abdomen ; but
these are sometimes wanting. The armature of the chelicera of
the female is represented in Fig. 740.

Hentz, who first described this spider, says that it is very
active, and apparently fearless, jumping on the hand that
threatens it.

Genus THIOD1NA (Thi-o-di'na)

This genus is the only representative in our fauna of a group
of genera distinguished by the presence of four bulbous setae on
the tibiae of the first pair of legs (Fig. 746). The function of
these setae is not known; but they are believed to be sense-organs.

Two very closely al-
lied species have been
found in the United
States.

Tbiodina sylvana
(T. syl-va'na). — In
the male "the cepha-
lothorax varies from
light to dark reddish
brown and has on the
cephalic-plate a large oval spot of white just in front of the dorsal
eyes, two white lines on each side near the posterior border,
running upward from the lower margin, and just behind and below
each dorsal eye three short parallel lines: the abdomen varies
from light testaceous to brown and has on the dorsum two longi-
tudinal white bands; on each side of the bands are some scattered
black dots." I n the female, " the cephalothorax is yellow, darkest
in the eye-region; the eyes are on black spots, and there is a brown
spot just above the anterior middle eyes, the abdomen is yellow
with three longitudinal white bands, the middle often less distinct,
and many black dots; the other parts are yellow" (Peckham).
The male measures from .36 to .44 inch in length; the female
from .36 to .48 inch. This species is found in the South and is
distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Thiodina puerpera (T. pu-er'pe-ra).— 'The general colour of
the male is like sylvana, but instead of the oval white spot there
is a white band running from between the dorsal eyes down the

670

Superfamily Argiopoidea

thoracic slope; under the dorsal eyes there is a white band instead
of the three lines, and there is only one white line on each side
coming up from the lower margin." 'The female can be dis-
tinguished from sylvana only by its smaller size, the slight dif-
ferences in the spines of the second tibia and the epigynum"
(Peckham). The male measures from .20 to .24 inch in length;
the female from .26 to .40 inch. The armature of the chelicera
is represented in Figs. 741 and 742. See also the statement
on page 664. This species is found in the Gulf States and extends
north to Pennsylvania.

Genus BALLUS (Bal'lus)

The spiders of this genus are small, short, and stocky, with
the abdomen not much larger than the cephalothorax. They
jump little, but run over plants and build their sacs under stones
and under bark. The following is our only known species.

Ballus youngii (B. young'i-i). — This spider measures less
than one eighth inch in length; it is black, thinly covered with
short yellow hairs; on the abdomen the thickening of these hairs
form two yellow spots on the anterior part, and three transverse
yellow bands. The species has been found in Pennsylvania and
Wisconsin.

Genus SYNEMOSYNA (Sy-nem-o-sy'na)

This is one of three genera of ant-like spiders that occur in
our fauna north of Texas. It is distinguished from Peckhamia
by the greater length of the thorax, the quadrangle of eyes oc-
cupying only about one third of the length of the cephalothorax;
and from Myrmarachne by the form of the hind part of the cepha-
lothorax which is narrow, with parallel sides, thus adding to the
apparent length of the pedicel.

The cephalothorax is strongly constricted a short distance
behind the posterior eyes but is inflated behind this constriction,
so that the middle portion of the thorax is about as high as the
head. There is a deep dorsal depression near the middle of the
length of the abdomen, opposite which there is usually, but not
always, a lateral constriction.

A single species occurs in our fauna.

671

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Synemosyna formica (S. for-mi'ca). — This is the most common
of our ant-like spiders, and the one in which the mimicry is most

perfect (Fig. 747). It is about
one fourth inch in length and
very slender. The cephalothorax
and basal part of the abdomen
is brown; behind the constriction
the abdomen is black. There is a
pale white spot in front of the
constriction of the cephalothorax,
and one on each side widening
downward under the posterior eyes.
There is also a white stripe on the
abdomen extending downward from
the dorsal depression on each side
and uniting in a large white patch
underneath. The chelicerae differ
in the two sexes; those of the female
are cylindrical with the inferior
margin of the furrow armed with
one tooth subdivided by notches
into two or three unequal points
(Fig. 744); those of the male are
much longer and more angular, and armed on the lower margin
of the furrow with a large tooth divided by notches into four
unequal points (Fig. 743).

This species lives on plants and runs like an ant.

Genus MYRMARACHNE (Myr-ma-rach'ne)

The genus Myrmarachne is a large one and is widely distrib-
uted; but it is doubtful if any species occur in our fauna. It
includes ant-like spiders, in which the sternum is long and narrow,
and in which the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is
armed with five or six teeth. In this genus is placed by the
Peckhams the following species although the sternum is wider
than is typical of Myrmarachne and the lower margin of the
furrow of the chelicerae is armed with a single tooth. It seems to
me that the species in question is more closely allied to the tropical
genus Zuninga than to this one; but to avoid confusion I leave it
where it is placed by the Peckhams.

Fig. 747.
SYNEMOSYNA FORMICA

C72

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Myrmarachne albocinctus (M. al-bo-cinc'tus).— - This is an
ant-like spider which differs from the species of Peckhamia in that
the quadrangle of eyes occupies less than half of the length of the
cephalothorax, and from Synemosyna in that the hind part of the
thorax is not narrowed so as to resemble a pedicel. In the palpi
the tibia and tarsus are very much thickened and covered with
stiff hairs on the under side. The cephalothorax is yellowish brown
with an indistinct light mark across the middle. The abdomen
has, at the constriction, a white band, which slopes backward
along the sides and nearly to the spinnerets. The length of the
body is from .20 to .28 inch.

This species is widely distributed throughout the eastern half
of the United States.

Genus ICIUS (Ic'i-us)

The cephalothorax is not very high and only slightly convex,
with the sides usually nearly parallel. The quadrangle of eyes
occupies less than half of the length of the cephalothorax; the
small eyes vary in position from midway between the anterior
laterals and posterior laterals to nearer the anterior laterals. The
sternum is not greatly narrowed in front. In our common species
the abdomen is iridescent or metallic.

Ten species have been found in the United States; of these
the following are the more common.

Icius elegans (1. tTe-gans).-- This is a small spider measuring
from one sixth to one fourth inch in length. It is bronze-green,
being clothed with brilliant iridescent scales. The legs are yellow,
with a black longitudinal line above; but in the female the femur
of the first is nearly all black; and in the male there is on the inner
side of the tibia of the first legs near the distal end an inky black
spot, from which grows a fringe of black hairs. In the male there
are two tufts of long hairs pointed forward. In both sexes there
is a white band around the lower margin of the cephalothorax.
The abdomen of the male is without bands or spots; but in the
female there is a white basal band. ,

This species is widely distributed in the eastern half of the
United States.

Icius similis (I. sim'i-lis).— -This species very closely re-
sembles the preceding; but the male lacks the dark spot at the

673

Superfamily Argiopoidea

end of the tibia of the first leg; and in the female there is no
white basal band on the abdomen. It occurs throughout the
greater part of the United States.

Icius hartii (1. hart'i-i). — This species is unusually low and
flat. In the male there are no tufts over the anterior eyes; and
the femur, patella, and tibia of the first legs are enlarged. In
both sexes the cephalothorax is brown with a covering of gray
hairs and the abdomen is dark gray with a white border broken
into bars; sometimes the abdomen has a metallic lustre. It occurs
from Massachusetts to Nebraska.

Genus TALAVERA (Tal-a-ve'ra)

This genus includes very small spiders, with the cephalothorax
moderately high and with the sides parallel and vertical. The
eye-region occupies nearly half of the length of the cephalothorax,
is about one fourth wider than long, and is wider in front than
behind. The second row of eyes is about midway between the
others. The front coxae are separated by a little more than the
width of the labium.

A single known species occurs in our fauna.

Talavera minuta (T. mi-nu'ta). — This is a small species, the
male measuring only one twelfth inch in length; the female,
one tenth. 'The cephalothorax is reddish brown, with the eye-
region blackish. The abdomen, in the male, is black, in the female
gray with indistinct pale chevrons. The legs are white banded
with black, except the femur of the first in the female, which is
more of less darkened, and the femur and tibia of the first in the
male, which are entirely dark. The palpi are white, the falces
yellowish" (Peckham).

This is not a common species; but it is distributed from the
Atlantic to the Pacific.

Genus STOIDIS (Sto'i-dis)

In our species of this genus the small eyes are situated mid-
way between the first and third rows; the sternum is not greatly
narrowed, but is nearly round; and the ocular quadrangle is much
wider in front than behind.

A single Floridian species represents this genus in this country.

674

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Stoidis aurata (S. au-ra'ta). — The cephalothorax is black,
with a few white scales in front of the posterior lateral eyes, and
a white band on the sides of the thoracic part. The abdomen
is grayish brown with four black spots, the two of each side more
or less connected. The adult measures from one fifth to one
fourth inch in length.

Genus NEON (Ne'on)

To this genus belong the smallest species of the Attidae
known. The quadrangle of eyes occupies more than one half of
the length of the cephalothorax; the cephalothorax is flat, for a
short distance inclined cephalad, and abruptly sloping behind the
eyes. The anterior eyes are large, close together, and in a straight
line; the posterior lateral eyes are very large and projecting; they
form a row as wide as the cephalothorax.

Neon nellii (N. nel'li-i). — The adult is only one tenth inch
in length. The cephalothorax is brown, darkest in the eye-region.
The abdomen is brown with pale spots and chevrons. This minute
species is common under stones and leaves at all seasons.

Genus EUOPHRYS (Eu-oph'rys)

The small eyes are halfway between those of the first and
third rows or a little nearer the third row; the quadrangle of
eyes occupies less than one half of the length of the cephalothorax ;
the sternum is oval, widely separating the coxae of the first legs;
and the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is unarmed.

Two uncommon species occur in our fauna.

Euophrys monadnock (E. mo-nad'nock). — The male measures
one sixth inch in length; the female, one fifth. The colour of
the male is black; the cephalothorax of the female is dark brown
in front and lighter behind, marked with dark radiating lines, the
abdomen is pale gray with light chevrons along the middle and
irregular oblique lines on the sides. Although not common, this
species is distributed from New Hampshire to California.

Euophrys cruciatus (E. cru-ci-a'tus). — Of this species onlv
the male is known; this was found in New Hampshire. The ab-
domen is black with a distinct white cross in the middle. The
length of the body is one fifth inch.

675

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus SITTICUS (Sit'ti-cus)

The lower margin of the furrow of the chelicerae is unarmed
except in a Californian species. The cephalothorax is high, con-
vex, and rather wide; the abdomen is short and wide. The
quadrangle of the eyes is nearly twice as wide as long, and occupies
less than two fifths of the length of the cephalothorax. The coxa?
of the first legs are widely separated.

The following is our only well-known species; a second one,
6". claremonti, was described by the Peckhams from a single dam-
aged specimen taken in California.

Sitticus palustris (S. pa-lus'tris). — The adult measures from
one fifth to one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax is
light brown in the female and dark in the male; there is a narrow
white stripe in the middle, and one on each side, as high as the
lateral eyes. The abdomen has a wide, white transverse marking,
just behind the middle, and several angular marks behind it. On
the front half are two white spots. In the male the large middle
marking is usually divided into two white spots. This species lives
on plants and makes nests among leaves (Emerton); it is distrib-
uted from New York to Colorado and from Anticosti to Alberta.

Genus SALT1CUS (Sal'ti-cus)

The cephalthorax is much longer
than wide, narrow in front and a
little wider behind; the thorax is
nearly flat in the first half and then
slopes abruptly. The anterior eyes
are very unequal in size; and the
posterior eyes are not prominent.
The quadrangle of eyes occupies
much less than one half of the
length of the cephalothorax. The
abdomen is long and narrow and the
sides are nearly parallel.

Four species have been found
in our fauna; but three of them are

known only by a few specimens from the Southwest.

Salticus senicus (S. sen'i-cus).-- This species is one of the

commonest members of the Attidse in our fauna (Fig. 748). It is

676

Fig. 748. SALTICUS SENICUS

Superfamily Argiopoidea

gray and white, about one fourth inch long, and lives on the
sides of houses and on fences. The front of the head around and
above the eyes is white. There is a white band across the anterior
end of the abdomen, and two or three oblique white bands on the
sides. In some cases, according to the Peekhams, the oblique
bands meet on the back, and a longitudinal white band passes down
the middle of the abdomen, widening, at the spinnerets.

Genus HYCTIA (Hyc'ti-a)

This genus includes long, slender spiders, with the first pair
of legs much stouter than the other legs, and with the tibia of the
first legs with four pairs of spines beneath. The sternum L
narrowed in front so that the anterior coxae are separated by a
distance less than the width of the labium. Three species have
been found in the United States.

Hyctia pikei (H. pi'ke-i). — This species can be easily distin-
guished from all other attids occurring in our fauna by the shape
of the abdomen, which is more than three times as long as wide.
The male measures from .28 to .35 inch in length; the female
from .32 to .38 inch. In the male there is a wide black stripe,
with four notches on each side, on the middle of the abdomen,
and a white stripe on each side. In the female the central band
is dark brown and is less definite and the sides are not so white
as in the male.

This species is widely distributed in the eastern half of the
United States.

Hyctia bina (H. bi'na). — In this species the abdomen is only
twice as long as wide. In the male the abdomen is bronze-brown,
with a white basal band, extending back about one third of the
length of the abdomen on the sides and a broken white band on
each side of the middle. In the female there is a white, median
band extending the entire length of the abdomen, on each side of
which there is a black band which does not reach either end of the
abdomen.

This species is also widely distributed in the eastern half of
the United States.

Hyctia robusta (II. ro-bus'ta).— -This species has been found
only in the Far West. The abdomen is three times as long as wide.
It is a larger and hairier species than H. pikei and has white in

O77

Superfamily Arglopoidea

the middle of the abdomen where H. pikei has dark brown,
the female is known.

Only

Genus MARPISSA (Mar-pis'sa)

The first pair of legs are slightly stouter than the second
pair and are armed with three pairs of spines beneath the tibia.
The abdomen is marked by an angular central band. The genus
is represented by three species in this country.

Mar pis sa undata (M. un-da'ta). — This is a common species
in the eastern half of the United States and is found as far west
as Utah. It measures from .38 to .42 inch in length. The dorsal
aspect of the cephalothorax is of a uniform gray; and there is a
wide gray band with indented margins along the middle of the
abdomen (Fig. 749); this band is bordered with black.

Fig. 74g.
MARPISSA UNDATA

Fig. 750.
MARPISSA MELANOGNATHUS, MALE

Marpissa califomica. — This species occurs in the Far West.
It is smaller than M. undata and has a wide gray band, bounded
by dark brown on the cephalothorax.

Marpissa mclanognathus (M. mel-a-nog'na-thus). — This
differs from the other two species in having a white band bounded
by dark rufus on the cephalothorax. In the male the abdomen
has bright rufus bands in the middle and on the sides, alternating
with two longitudinal white bands (Fig. 750). In the female

678

Superfamily Argiopoidea

(Fig. 751) the whole upper surface of the abdomen is covered with
mixed gray and rufus hairs.

This species occurs in Florida.

Genus ADMESTINA (Ad-mes-ti'na)

The cephalothorax is long, narrow in front and wider in the
thoracic part; the median furrow is remote from the eyes, very
small, almost obsolete. There are no spines on the tibia of the
first legs.

Admestina tibialis (A. tib-i-a'lis). — This is a small species
measuring only one sixth inch in length. The cephalothorax is
black or brown, with the cephalic part often marked with two
obscure spots. The abdomen is pale and marked with one or two
black bands which are often notched; the first legs are brown,
the others are pale, spotted or lined in black. It is found in the
Eastern United States and west to Wisconsin and Texas.

Fig. 751.
MARPISSA MKI.AMHAATHUS, I I.MALE

Fig. 75-1-
WAI.A PALMARUM, MALE

Genus W'ALA (W'a'la)

The cephalothorax is nearly flat, longer than wide, margins
rounded near the middle. The ocular quadrangle occupies less
than one half of the length of the cephalothorax, is wider than
long, and is wider behind than in front; the anterior eyes are in a

679

Superfamily Argiopoidea

straight or slightly procurved line, with the median eyes sub-
contiguous. The abdomen is long and narrow. The first legs
in the males are much longer than the others.

Two species are widely distributed in the eastern half of the
United States; a third, a South American species, Wala grenada,
has been found by Mr. Banks in southern Florida.

IVala palmarum (W. pal-ma'rum).— The male is reddish,
with a broad white band on the sides extending the whole length
of the body (Fig. 752). The clypeus is marked with white hairs
and yellow scales in the eye-region; and there are dark spots at
the base of the eyes. The front legs are dark, all others are white.
In the female the cephalothorax is reddish, and the eyes are on
dark spots. The legs and palpi are white. The abdomen is
light, with large triangular spots in the centre and small dark spots
at the sides. The length of the body is about one fifth inch.

This species is common on trees and bushes throughout the
summer months in the Eastern United States.

IVala mitrata (W. mi-tra'ta). — This species closely resembles
the preceding one; but the legs are all white in both sexes, and
the chelicerse of the male are white and not long and horizontal
as in IV. palmarum. The distribution of the species is similar
to that of IV . palmarum.

Genus PHIDIPPUS (Phi-dip'pus)

The cephalothorax is high, heavy, and convex; the first
legs are heavy and very hairy, and are often fringed. This
genus includes spiders which are above the medium size, and is
represented by thirty-eight known species in our fauna. The
following are those most likely to be taken in the more thickly
settled portions of our country. These can be separated by the
following table. A table to all of our species is given by the
Peckhams ('09), from which this is compiled.

A. Abdomen red or marked with red.
B. Males.

C. Cephalothorax red above. P. 682. P. whitmanii

CC. Cephalothorax black above.

D. Abdomen black spotted with red. P. 683.

P. insolens (in part)

Superfamily Argiopoidea

DD. Abdomen red, or red banded with black.
E. Abdomen banded with black. P. 683.

P. clarus
EE. Abdomen uniform red. P. 683.

P. insolens (in part)
BB. Females.

C. Cephalic plate with two black patches between which
the colour is orange or red; abdomen with seven
spots red, edged with black. P. 684. P. mineatus
CC. Markings unlike those of P. mineatus
D. Abdomen marked with black.

E. Abdomen with two black bands. P. 683.

P. clarus
EE. Abdomen with one black band. P. 683.

P. insolens (in part)
DD. Abdomen all red.

E. Cephalic plate with a bare black region back of
first row of eyes. P. 682. P. whitmanii

EE. Cephalic plate all red. P. 683.

P. insolens (in part)
AA. Abdomen neither red nor marked with red.
B. Abdomen black marked with white.
C. Cephalothorax dark, distinctly marked with white.
P. 682. P. variegatus

CC. Cephalothorax all black. P. 681. P. audax

BB. Abdomen brown or gray and spotted.

C. Cephalic plate with a transverse row of white spots.
P. 684. P. mystaceus

CC. Cephalic plate without a row of white spots. P. 683.

P. purpuratus

Phidippus audax (P. au'dax).— - The cephalothorax and
abdomen are black with many long white hairs. I he abdomen
is marked by a white basal band, a large more or less triangular
central white spot, behind which are two pairs of white bars. In
front of the large white spot is a pair of indistinct white spots,
in some individuals there are traces of oblique lateral stripes (Fig.
753). In the middle of the back, behind the large white spot.
there is a metallic band.

This is a common and widely distributed species throughout

681

Superfamily Argiopoidea

the East and as far west as Texas and Colorado. It varies in
size from one third to one half inch in length; it lives under sticks
and stones and passes the winter half-grown in a silken bag.

Phidippus variegatus (P. va-ri-e-ga'tus). — This is a large
black species measuring from .44 to .60 inch in length. The
cephalothorax is black with two white bands on the sides which
do not meet behind
(Fig. 754). The ab-
domen is black marked

Fig. 754. PHIDIPPUS VARIEGATUS

Fig. 753-
PHIDIPPUS AUDAX

with white; there is a

basal band which extends

back on the sides, a large

central triangular spot,

and farther back on the

sides there are two pairs of bars. The tibiae of the first legs

are heavily fringed.

This is a Southern species occurring throughout the Gulf States.

Phidippus whitmanii (P. whit-man'i-i).— The body in this
species is almost entirely red above. In the male the cephalothorax
is red except for a black hairless region extending from the first
to the second row of eyes; and in the female a light band comes
up from between the anterior median eyes, nearly crossing the
black hairless region. The abdomen is red with a more or less
distinct white band on the base and sides, and sometimes there
are two pairs of white bars on the posterior part.

This is a Northern species; it has been taken from New Eng-
land to Wisconsin.

682

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Phidippus clarus (P. cla'rus). — This is a red and black species.
In the male the cephalothorax is black and the abdomen red
with a central longitudinal black band, the margins of which
are notched by three pairs of red or white spots, and there is a
basal white band and oblique white bands on the sides. The first
pair of legs are stout and long, exceeding the second pair by the
length of the tarsus and a part of the tibia. In the female both
the cephalothorax and abdomen are red; upon the abdomen there
are two longitudinal black stripes spotted with white, and a basal
white band, and oblique white bands at the sides. The male
measures from .20 to .34 inch in length; the female from .32 to
.52 inch.

This is a widely distributed species, occurring from the Atlan-
tic to the Pacific.

Phidippus insolens (P. in'so-lens). — This is a Southern red
and black species, which is dimorphic in both sexes. 'The male
has a black cephalothorax covered with inconspicuous brownish
hairs. The abdomen may be black with red bands and spots, or
may be uniform red, in which case the pattern shows in deeper
spots of colour when the spider is under alcohol. In the black
form the red marks consist of a basal band, an oblique band on each
side, a pair of spots directly behind the basal band, a central trian-
gular spot, and two pairs of bars farther back." " In the female the
cephalothorax is red on the upper surface, the sides and thoracic
slope being black. The abdomen, as in the male, has two forms,
being sometimes of a uniform red on the dorsum, or, in some cases,
with a small black V pointing up, just above the spinnerets, a
faint white basal band, and one white diagonal on each side; while
others, as in the type, have the basal band and diagonals yellowish
and marked with a wide central black band which reaches from the
spinnerets to a point in front of the middle." (Peckham.) The
male measures .34 inch in length; the female from .40 to .56 inch.

Phidippus purpuratus (P. pur-pu-ra'tus).— - This is a common
widely distributed species, thickly clothed with light gray hairs;
in alcohol it appears brown. The abdomen is light gray with a
broad dark central band, which is more or less distinctly divided
along the middle line, and which is marked with four pairs of
white spots (Fig. 755).

This spider is usually found under stones or other objects
lying on the ground and often in a silken nest.

683

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Pbidippus mystaceus (P. mys-ta'ce-us). — I took this fine
species at Austin, Tex.; it was originally described by Hentz
from North Carolina; it is probable, therefore, that it is distributed
throughout the Gulf States. The female only is known; this sex
measures from .38 to .44 inch in length. The body is clothed
with gray hairs and is spotted and banded with white as shown
in Fig. 756. Instead of the large central white spot on the
abdomen there is, in some individuals, a pair of spots more or
less coalesced, or entirely distinct.

Pbidippus miniatus (P.
min-i-a'tus). — This is another

Fig. 755. PHIDIPPUS PURPURATUS

Fig. 756. PHIDIPPUS MYSTACEUS

Southern species of which only the female is known (Fig. 757).
It is a large hairy spider, marked with red. The female measures
from .52 to .72 inch in length. The cephalothorax is clothed with
yellowish gray hairs and has two black patches in the eye-region,
between which the colour is orange or red. The abdomen is
covered with short bright red and long whitish hairs; there is a
basal band of gray hairs, and seven red spots edged with black,
a central larger spot and three pairs of spots, one in front of the
central spot and two behind; these are not well shown in the figure.

Genus DENDRYPHANTES (Den-dry-phan'tes)

The genus Dendryphantes as recognized by American writers
is much less extended than that of Simon, who includes in it the
species placed by these writers in Pbidippus as well as those classed

684

Superfamily Argiopoidea

by them in Dendryphantes. In the more restricted sense, Den-
dryphantes includes spiders of moderate size, rarely measuring
more than one fourth inch in length. The cephalothorax is
rather high and convex, widest in the thoracic part, highest at
the third row of eyes. The anterior eyes are large, slightly
separated; the second row is halfway between the other rows;
and the eye-space occupies two fifths of the length of the cepha-
lothorax.

Even as restricted here the genus is a very large one, twenty

species having been described from our fauna alone; as these

resemble each other closely, it is often difficult to determine them.

The two following are the most common species:

Dendryphantes militaris (D. mil-i-ta'ris).— - The two sexes of

this specie differ greatly in appearance. The male (Fig. 758) is

Fig. 758. Fig. 757- Fig. 7S0-

DENDRYPHANTES MILI- PHIDIPPUS MINIATUS DENDRYPHANTES MI

TARIn MALE LITARIS, FEMALE

yellowish brown or bronze-brown marked with white. There is
a white band on each side of the cephalothorax below the eyes,
and extending back nearly to the abdomen, and there is a white
band around the edge of the abdomen; sometimes there are two
rows of white spots on the dorsum of the abdomen. The female
(Fig. 759) is brown or bronze-brown; the abdomen is marked with
a basal white band, four pairs of dorsal white spots, and, on the
sides, several oblique marks. The male measures one fourth inch
in length, the female, one third.

This is a very common species, over a large part of our ter-
ritory.

685

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Dendryphantes capitakis (D. cap-i-ta'tus). — In the male the
cephalothorax is dark brown with a white stripe on each side under
the eyes and extending back over the thorax; on the posterior
part of the thorax, these stripes converge but do not meet; there
are also white hairs above the anterior eyes. The abdomen is
white in front and around the sides; it is dark brown in the middle;
the brown area is often notched at the sides and sometimes in-
distinctly divided into four pairs of spots as in the female.

"The females are of two varieties, which run into each other.
The light variety has the light parts white or light yellow and the
dark parts dark brown covered with white hairs and scales. The
cephalothorax is dark brown, thinly covered with scales, so that
the dark colour shows between them in places. The abdomen
is brighter yellow than the thorax, with four pairs of purplish
brown spots, the second pair largest, connected with a paler brown
middle marking. The dark variety is generally smaller and covered
with longer hairs and scales. The dark spots on the abdomen are
larger and more closely connected, so that the markings appear as
light spots on a dark ground" (Emerton). The males measure from
one sixth to one fifth inch in length; the females are a little larger.

This is a very common and variable species; it is found on
siirubs and small trees over a large part of the United States.

Genus SASSACUS (Sas'sa-cus)

The cephalothorax is short and thick; it is flat in both sexes
in the first two thirds, the posterior third slopes a little more
abruptly in the male. The ocular quadrangle is wider behind
than in front, and occupies one half of the length of the cephalo-
thorax. The tibia of the first legs is armed with two or three
pairs of spines.

Sassacus papenhoei (S. pap-en-ho'e-i). — The spiders of this
species are small, dark, and covered with iridescent scales. The
male is a little less, the female a little more than one fifth inch in
length. The palpi are brown, and are covered with white hairs.
The legs are reddish, with the last two segments white, with
black rings at the distal end of each. The abdomen has four
punctate spots on the dorsum and is encircled by a wide, snowy
white band.

This species is found in the Southwest and in California.

686

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus AGASSA (A-gas'sa)

The cephalothorax is thick, about as wide as long, flat above,
and hollowed behind to receive the abdomen. The ocular quad-
rangle occupies two thirds of the length of the cephalothorax and
is much wider behind than before; the second row of eyes is
much more remote from the posterior eyes than from the anterior
eyes. The abdomen is oval, short, and truncate in front.

Agassa cyanea (A. cy-a'ne-a). — This is a small species,
measuring a little less than one fifth inch in length. The whole
body is covered with iridescent scales which give it a coppery green
colour. The abdomen is marked with a narrow, yellowish white
basal band. The species is distributed over a large portion of the
region east of the Rocky Mountains.

Genus HABROCESTUM (Ha-bro-ces'tum)

The cephalothorax is high with the cephalic part convex, and
the thoracic part steeply inclined. The ocular quadrangle oc-
cupies less than one half of the length of the cephalothorax
and is wider in front than behind; the second row of eyes is half-
way between the others. The abdomen is elongate oval in out-
line.

Four species are known to occur in our fauna; but only one
of them is common and widely distributed.

Habrocestum pulex (H. pu'lex).— - This is a small species, the
male measuring only one sixth inch in length, the female a little
more. In the male the cephalothorax is reddish, dark in the eye-
region, with a narrow white triangle pointing forward, and lighter
behind the eyes; the abdomen is dark brown, with two longitudinal,
nearly parallel, light lines on the basal half and a broad transverse
white mark just behind the middle. In the female the cephalo-
thorax is dark, with a large triangular light spot reaching from the
eyes to the hind end. The abdomen is dark, with either two
light longitudinal lines on the basal half, as in the male, or with
several irregular light spots in this region, and with a> transverse
light band just behind the middle. Around and behind the
transverse band are other irregular light markings.

I his species is widely distributed in the eastern half of the
United States.

687

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus PHLEGRA (Phle'gra)

The cephalothorax is long and narrow, a little the widest
behind the middle. The thorax is level for more than one half
its length, then sloping abruptly. The anterior eyes are in a
much recurved line; the ocular quadrangle is short, occupying
only one third the length of the cephalothorax, with the sides
parallel. The abdomen is elongate oval in outline.

Phlegra leopardus (P. le-o-par'dus). — The leopard-spider is
easily recognized by its stripes of which there are two on the
cephalothorax and three on the abdomen; these stripes are white
on a dark ground. In the female the white stripes on the cepha-
lothorax extend back from the anterior eyes to the hind end of the
abdomen; in the male they begin at the posterior eyes. This
species is widely distributed in the region east of the Rocky
Mountains.

Genus PELLENES (Pel-le'nes)

The cephalothorax is high, convex, and a little longer than
wide. The ocular quadrangle is wider than long, and usually
wider behind than in front; the second row of eyes is about mid-
way between the first and the third.

'The males of Pellenes have usually some peculiar modi-
fication of form, colour or ornament, appearing in the first and
third legs. These fringes, enlargements and markings are used
to attract and delight the female during courtship, the posturing
and dancing being such as to show off every beauty to the greatest
advantage. They make the identification of the males compara-
tively easy, while the females resemble each other so closely as to
make it difficult to distinguish them. The young males are like
the females until one or two moults from maturity" (Peckham).

In their "Revision of the Attidae" the Peckhams describe forty
species of Pellenes and give keys for their separation. But of many
of these species only a few individuals exist in collections and of a
considerable number of them only one sex is known. The following
species are those that are most common; they can be separated
by the following keys, compiled from those of the Peckhams.

KEY TO MALES OF PELLENES

A. First or third legs modified or fringed.

B. Enlargements or fringes on both first and third legs.

688

Superfamily Argiopoidea

C. Clypeus red; spatulate spines on tibia of first li

Occurs in the Southern States and in Colorado P.

69 1. P. coronatus

CC. Clypeus not red. P. 692. P. peregrums

BB. Only first leg fringed or enlarged. P. 689. P. agilis

AA. Legs not modified nor fringed.

B. Abdomen with iridescent scales. P. 692. P. splendcns
BB. Abdomen without iridescent scales.

C. Abdomen dark marked with white. P. 690.

P. borealis

CC. Abdomen light golden on the back with an encircling

white band. P. 691. P. hoyi

KEY TO FEMALES OF PELLENES

A. Clypeus marked with white and dark bands. P. 689.

P. agilis
AA. Clypeus not banded.

B. Abdomen plainly banded above.
C. Abdomen with at least one transverse band behind the
basal band.
D. Colour dark gray, banded with light gray or white;
occurs in the Northern States. P. 690.

P. borealis
DD. Colour yellowish with whitish bands; occurs in
the Southern States and Colorado. P. 691.

P. coronatus

CC. Only longitudinal bands behind the basal band on

the abdomen.

D. Abdomen with a central light band reaching a light

basal band. P. 692. P. peregrinus

DD. Abdomen without a central light band reaching a

light basal band. P. 692. P. splendens

BB. Abdomen not plainly banded above. P. 691. P. boyi

Pellenes agilis (P. ag'i-lis). — In the male, the cephalothorax
is covered with short black hairs mixed with others of a yellowish

brown colour, these latter being more numerous in the eye-region;
there is a short, median, white stripe in the e\ e- region, and
on each side a white stripe extending the whole length of the

689

Superfamily Argiopoidea

abdomen; these stripes are bowed outward at the posterior eyes
and inward on the thorax. The abdomen is black, marked with
white as follows: a basal band, a notched median band, and three
bars on each side. The first legs are the stoutest and are heavily
fringed with white, both above and below. In the female the
markings of the cephalothorax are much less distinct than in the
male, and gray hairs take the place of the black ones of the male,
the cephalothorax being nearly all gray; the clypeus is marked
with white and dark bands. The central band on the abdomen
is broken up into several spots or pairs of spots. The male
measures one fifth inch in length; the female, one fourth inch.
The species is widely distributed throughout the region east of
the Rocky Mountains.

Pellenes borealis (P. bor-e-a'lis). — Two types of the male
have been described, the differences being due perhaps to the
markings of the one having been rubbed away. " In the one, the
cephalothorax, including the clypeus, is all black, and the abdomen
is black with a white basal and a white encircling band which
sends up two bars on each side, the anterior pair of which is con-
tinued in a straight transverse band across the back, in front of
the middle. This transverse band is connected with the base
by an indistinct stripe of white. On the posterior part of the back
is a good-sized central white spot, and behind this are two white
dots." " In the second male the cephalothorax has whitish bands
from the dorsal eyes to near the hind margin, where they turn
and pass forward along the lower side, and the upper sides are
covered with gray hairs. On the abdomen the spaces between
the bands and spots are filled with gray hairs. In front of the
transverse band are two narrow transverse black lines, one on
each side of the middle. Behind, instead of the white spot, there
is a band of tiny white chevrons bordered by short oblique black
bars, reaching the spinnerets. The white dots above the spin-
nerets are present." "In the female the ground colour of the
whole body is dark gray the effect being produced by a thin cover-
ing of gray hairs on a black integument. The cephalothorax
has light gray dorsal and marginal bands, and the abdomen
has light gray basal and transverse bands, the two being con-
nected by two light lines instead of by a solid band. Just behind
the transverse band are two fawn dots, and farther back are four
chevrons and two dots of the same colour. On the posterior sides

690

Superfamily Argiopoidea

are several oblique gray bands. The hair on the clypeus and
above the front eyes is fawn" (Peckham).

Mr. Emerton discovered that the young male of this species
has a red clypeus which is lacking in the adult.

The male measures a little more than one fifth inch in length ;
the female, one fourth inch.

The species is widely distributed in the North from New
England to Wisconsin.

Pellenes coronatus (P. cor-o-na'tus).— - This is a Southern
species closely allied to P. borealis, which is a Northern species.
In the male the clypeus is covered with short brilliant red hair
(in P. borealis only immature males have the clypeus red), and
on the anterior face of the tibia of the first legs there are two long
spatulate spines; the third legs are also abnormal in form. The
cephalothorax varies in colour from dark to pale; it has a marginal
white line on each side, these bow inward till they meet at the
posterior eyes and then spread outward on the thorax. The ab-
domen is black or brown; marked with white as follows: a basal
band, a transverse stripe near the middle, a central spot behind
this, and a pair of spots above the spinnerets. In the female the
colour is yellowish, with whitish bands, which, however, are much
less distinct than in the male. The male measures about one-
sixth inch in length; the female, one fifth.

This is a Southern species, the range of which extends north
to Long Island and west to Texas and Colorado.

Pellenes boyi (P. hoy'i).— 'The male is a brilliant spider
with variable markings. The upper part of the cephalothorax
is bright yellowish red, marked, above the front eyes, by a snowy
band which curves back to the eyes of the second row, where it
merges in the white side region, and by a small white spot between
the dorsal eyes. Below the eyes are wide white bands which
occupy the entire sides in front, but are limited to the upper half
farther back, the lower sides being black." 'The abdomen is
light golden on the back with an encircling white band, scalloped
behind the middle, bordered with red around the base and front
sides, and with black toward the spinnerets. Two short white
lines run back from the middle of the basal band. ( )n the posterior
part, above, are one or two pairs of oblique bars."

'The female is less brilliant but not less variable than the
male. The cephalothorax is covered with a mixture of orange,

691

Superfamily Argiopoidea

black and white hairs, the sides being lighter than the back.
White angular lines, less distinct in front than behind, begin at
the front lateral eyes, point up over the small eyes, down under the
dorsals and then up again, but do not meet behind. Many speci-
mens have a scalloped black line between the dorsal eyes. The
pale golden region down the middle of the abdomen may or may
not be marked in the second half with fine white chevrons. The
bands on either side of the posterior central region are black, or
red mixed with black, and the white basal band is mixed with red.
In other females the surface is of a uniform pale brown with an
encircling band gray. The white marks behind the middle con-
sist of two long oblique lines, commonly bordered with black,
which meet at an acute angle in front, and some small black-
bordered chevrons further back." 'The epigynum is unique,
having two large anterior openings, and two other openings be-
hind, near the edge" (Peckham). The males measure about
one fifth inch in length; the females one fourth.

This species is distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific.

Pellenes peregrinus (P. per-e-gri'nus). — On each side of the
cephalothorax, there is a white stripe, which extends from the
anterior lateral eyes backward under the dorsal eyes, and then
curves inward on the first half of the thorax and then outward
on the second half; at the posterior lateral angle of the thorax it
turns forward and following the margin of the cephalothorax
extends to the clypeus. On the abdomen there are three white
longitudinal stripes. In the male the first pair of legs is fringed
and the third pair is modified in form, the patella being widened
and somewhat triangular in shape.

The male measures about one fifth inch in length; the female,
one fourth inch.

This species has been taken in the Atlantic region from Maine
to Florida.

Pellenes spletidens (P. splen'dens). — 'The male, in life, is
one of the most brilliant of our Attidae, the cephalothorax, in-
cluding clypeus, being covered with iridescent blue scales, and
the abdomen, above and below, with iridescent pinkish red. In
alcohol, two white scallops appear behind the dorsal eyes, and the
abdomen shows light bands at the base and sides and a fleur-de-lis
mark in the middle, this being the pattern of the young male and
of the female."

692

Superfamily Argiopoidea

"The female is variable. In the typical form the eye-region
is mottled with short fawn and black hairs, with a darker trans-
verse band between the dorsal eyes, behind which are two white
scallops. The hairs behind and on the upper sides are yellowish
brown, and those on the lower sides and clypeus are white. The.
abdomen is velvety black with a white band at base, a wide scal-
loped white band on each side behind the middle, and a central,
irregular, white band which begins in front of the middle in a broad
arrow head, and which may or may not reach the apex. At the
end is a pair of white dots. The legs are medium brown. Another
form has a white abdomen with a black band behind the base
and four large black spots on the back" (Peckham). The male
measures .26 inch in length; the female, .30 inch.

The range of this species extends from the Atlantic to the
Pacific.

Genus PLEXIPPUS (Plex-ip'pus)

The cephalothorax is high and convex, with the sides parallel
in the cephalic part and rounded on the thoracic. The ocular
quadrangle occupies about one
third of the length of the cepha-
lothorax and has the sides nearly
parallel. The tibia of the first legs
is armed with three pairs of spines
beneath; and the first two pairs of
legs are similar. Only one species
occurs in our fauna.

Plexippus paykullii (P. pay-
kul'li-i). — This is a dark spider with
a median light band extending the
whole length of the body; this band
is wider on the posterior half of
the abdomen. In the female (Fig.
760), the median band is divided
on the first half of the abdomen by a dark line, and the wider
portion of this band, on the second half of the abdomen, is in-
distinctly marked with dark chevrons, and has a pair of trans-
verse white bars extending from it. The male measuVes from .^<>
to .40 inch in length; the female from .}<> to 4S inch.

This species is found in all of the warm regions of the world,
including the extreme southern portions of ouf territory.

693

Fig. 760.
PL] \iiti r\\ Kl LLII. I l \l \l.i

Superfamily Argiopoidea

Genus METACYRBA (Met-a-cyr'ba)

The cephalothorax is low and flat; it is broadest in the middle
and narrowed both in front and behind. The tibiae of the first
legs are armed with one or two short spines, or none at all, beneath.
The sternum is much narrowed in front between the anterior
coxae and widened behind. The ocular quadrangle is wider than
long.

Only a single species is known.

Metacyrba tceniola (M. tae-ni'o-la).— - This is a flat, nearly
black species. The males are a little less than one fifth inch in
length; the females, a little more than one fourth inch. The
cephalothorax is black, smooth, and without markings or with a
white line around the margin. The abdomen is dark gray, with
two longitudinal narrow lines of white hairs more or less broken
into short bars. The femora of the first legs are flattened and
much stouter than those of the other legs, especially in the males.

This species is distributed throughout the United States and
is found also in Mexico.

Genus M/EVIA (Mae'vi-a)

The cephalothorax is rather high, with the sides nearly
vertical, and nearly parallel in the head region and slightly
rounded in the thoracic. The ocular quadrangle is slightly wider
in front than behind and occupies less than one half of the length
of the cephalothorax; the anterior eyes are in a straight or slightly
recurved line; the second row of eyes is nearly midway between
the other two rows. The legs are slender. The sternum is long,

narrow in front, the coxae of the first legs
being nearly contiguous. The lower margin
of the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with
a compound tooth (Fig. 761).

As now restricted only two species of
this genus occur in our fauna, M. poultonii
from Texas and Arizona, and the following.
Mcevia vittata (M. vit-ta'ta).— - This spe-
F'g- 761. cies is of especial interest on account of a

CHELICERA OF M/FATA ... ,. ,. f ., . ., . ., ,

vittata striking dimorphism of the male; it is a widely

distributed and very common one.

604

Superfamily Argiopoidea

In the female the ocular quadrangle is either entirely black
or with the three sides occupied by the eyes black; the remainder
of the cephalothorax is light brown with three, more or less distinct,
longitudinal dark bands (Fig. 762); on the lateral and posterior
edge of the thorax there is a narrow black line. On the abdomen
there are two longitudinal red bands and indistinct chevrons of
the same colour in the middle of the hinder half. In alcohol the
red marks change to brown.

The typical male resembles the female; but the red bands
on the abdomen are broken up into two rows of spots which are
connected with the chevrons (Fig. 763).

In the black male both cephalothorax and abdomen are black;

1 -62.

M/EVIA VITTATA, FEMALE

Fig. 763-
M.ftVIA VITTATA, TYPICAL MALE

but there is a pale spot in the centre of the thorax which is divided
by a longitudinal black line. In the middle of the ocular quad-
rangle there is a transverse row of three prominent tufts of hairs.

Genus ONONDAGA (On-on-da'ga)

The cephalothorax is low and nearly flat, with a transverse
groove behind the dorsal eyes; the sides are a very little dilated
behind the dorsal eyes, nearly vertical in front, rounded behind;
the cephalic part is inclined and the thoracic part falls slightly
in the first half, then more steeply. The eye-region occupies less
than half of the length of the cephalothorax, and is slightly wider
behind than in front; the second row of eyes is a little nearer the

695

Superfamily Argiopoidea

third than the first. The tibia of the first legs is thickened

and armed with four pairs of spines below. The lower margin of

the furrow of the chelicerae is armed with a wide tooth which is

nearly of the fissidentate type (Fig. 764).

The following is our only species:

Onondaga lineata (O. lin-e-a'ta). — The ocular

quadrangle is black; the remainder of the ceph-

alothorax is light brown; the abdomen, in

alcoholic specimens, is dark brown with light

markings. In fresh specimens the abdomen is

onondaga line- marked with four longitudinal lines of white

ATA CHELICERA . . _. , , - , . . .

of the female hairs. I he length of the body is about one
fifth inch.
This species is widely distributed in the Atlantic region and
as far west as Wisconsin.

Fig. 764.

Genus ZYGOBALLUS (Zyg-o-bal'lus)

These spiders are
easily recognized by
the characteristic
form of the cephalo-
thorax. The ocular
quadrangle occupies
more than one half of
the length of the ceph-
alothorax, and the
thorax slopes very abruptly from
behind the posterior eyes. The
first pair of legs are much stouter
than the others; and the chelic-
erae of the males are greatly
enlarged. This genus belongs to
the fissidentate series; Fig. 765
represents the chelicerae of a
female; and Fig. 766 one of a
male.

Four species are known to
occur in the United States; they
are all small, measuring from one

Fig. 765.
CHELICERA OF ZYGOBALLUS BETTINII, FEMALE

Fig. 766.

CHELICERA OF ZYGOBALLUS

BETTINII, MALE

696

Superfamily Argiopoidea

eighth to one fifth inch in length, and they vary so much in
colour, size, and markings that it is difficult to distinguish them.
One of the four Z. rufipes is a Mexican species, which has been
found in Texas; a second, Z. sexpunctatus, is found only in the
Southern States.

The males of these four species are separated as follows by
the Peckhams; the females must be distinguished by differences
in the epigynum.

KEY TO MALES OF ZYGOBALLUS

A. Face and sides of cephalothorax, beyond the second row of
eyes, covered thickly with white scales. Tibia of the
first legs about four times as long as wide.
B. Cephalothorax with a large white spot at the beginning
of the thoracic slope. Bulb of palpus with a longitu-
dinal division. P. 698. Z. sexpunctatus
BB. Cephalothorax with no white spot on thorax. Bulb of
palpus with a transverse division. P. 697. Z. bettinii
AA. Sides of cephalothorax dark, or covered with rather in-
conspicuous whitish scales. Tibia of the first legs either
from five to six times as long as wide or only two and one
half times as long as wide.
B. Patella and tibia of the first legs long and slender, the
tibia from five to six times as long as wide. Found
only in Texas and farther south. Z. rufipes
BB. Joints of the first legs comparatively short. Tibia
two and one half times as long as wide. Found in New
England and as far south as Virginia. P. 698.

Z. nervosus

Zygoballus bettinii (Z. bet-ti'ni-i). — When living this is a very
beautiful spider, having spots of white hairs and shining bronze
and copper-coloured scales. The male is bronze-brown, with the
face and sides of the cephalothorax beyond the second row of
eyes covered thickly with white scales, and with a basal and two
transverse bands of white on the abdomen. The female is also
bronze-brown; it has a white basal band on the abdomen, and
two short, longitudinal, angular, white bands on the front part of
the abdomen: and several whitish chevrons on the hind part. I Ik-
form of the epigynum is shown in Fi,u. 767. This is a common and

097

Superfamily Argiopoidea

widely distributed species; it occurs throughout the eastern half
of the United States.

Zygoballus nervosus (Z. ner-vo'sus). — "In both sexes the
cephalothorax is brown, thinly covered with whitish scales. The
narrow clypeus is white. In the male the abdomen is brown,
slightly metallic, with a very bright white basal band extending
two thirds of the way along the sides, a nearly longitudinal white
bar edged with black, on each side at the posterior end, and a
white spot at the spinnerets. The female abdomen, of a lighter
brown, is marked much like that of Z. bettinii, with two short

' gf

■ '"■&

'':'','

: tm

.VS»

gglft

■#

.■'":V

■J

*£F

Fig. 767. EPIGYNUM OF ZYGO-
BALLUS BETTINII

Fig. 769. EPIGYNUM OF ZYGO-
BALLUS SEXPUNCTATUS

Fig. 768. ZYGOBALLUS SEXPUNC-
TATUS, MALE

curved bands just back of basal
band, followed by two large white
spots with black spots behind
them, and farther back a series
of indistinct whitish chevrons,
with a second pair of black spots
a little in front of the spinnerets" (Peckham). This species
has been taken from Maine to Illinois and south to Virginia.

Zygoballus sexpunctatus (Z. sex-punc-ta'tus). — This species
closely resembles Z. bettinii; but the male differs in having a large
white spot at the beginning of the thoracic slope, and in having
the bulb of the palpus with a longitudinal division. In the typical
form the two transverse bands of the abdomen are so broken that
the first consists of four spots and the second of two (Fig. 768),
giving the six spots which suggested the specific name, but these
spots may be wanting. The female can be best distinguished by

698

the form of the epigynum (Fig. 769).
only in the Southern States.

Superfamily Argiopoidea
This species has been taken

Genus PECKHAMIA (Peck-ham'i-a)

These spiders are ant-like in form, having the pecjicel of the
abdomen visible from above; they differ from the other ant-like
spiders found in our fauna in that the quadrangle of eyes occupies
more than one half of the length of the cephalothorax. The
thoracic part of the cephalothorax is short and marked behind the
eyes with a transverse and slightly recurved furrow, behind which
it is slightly convex, and then inclined to the posterior border,
which is a little turned up and obtusely truncate. This genus
belongs to the fissidentate series, the lower margin of the furrow
of the chelicerae being armed with a compound tooth (Fig. 770).
Three species are found in the United States.

Fig. 770. CHELICERAE OF PECKHAMIA PICATA
a, male b, female

Peckhamia picata (P. pi-ca'ta).— This is our most common
species. The ocular quadrangle is black with violet reflections;
the thorax reddish brown, with two white spots in the depression
behind the posterior lateral eyes; the anterior part of the abdomen
is reddish brown, the posterior part black: there is a white band
on each side in the constriction in the abdomen. The sternum is
dark brown or black; the coxae are light. The first pair of legs
are considerably enlarged. The male is .13 inch in length; the
female .19 inch.

Peckhamia scorpiona (P. scor-pi-o'na). — This is the smallest
of our three species, the male measuring .09 inch in length: the
female .14 inch. The first pair of legs are only slightly enlarged.
"In the male, the cephalothorax is brown; the abdomen is brown

699

Superfamily Argiopoidea

anteriorly, encircled by a white line in front of the middle, behind
which it is blackish; other parts brown, excepting a pale spot on
the anterior part of the venter. In the female, the cephalothorax
is brownish white, with the eyes on black spots; the abdomen
is pale, with two short, curved dark bands near the spinnerets;
chelicerae brownish; venter pale, with a dark region near the
spinnerets; legs brown above, pale beneath; other parts all pale"
(Peckham, '92). This species is distributed from the Atlantic
to the Pacific.

Peckhamia americana (P. a-mer-i-ca'na). — This is a larger
and heavier species than the preceding, the female measuring
one fifth inch in length. It differs from P. picata in being much
lighter in colour and in having the sternum and coxae of a uniform
light reddish brown; while in P. picata the dark brown or black
sternum makes a contrast with the light coxae (Peckham, '92).
This is a Southern species occurring in the Gulf States and in
the Southwest.

INDUSTRY, BY P. VERONESE, DUCAL PALACE, VENICE

700

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following list includes only the titles of the books and
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In the following list the number in parenthesis indicates
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707

INDEX

Names of genera and of species and references to generic and specific descriptions are in italics.

Abdomen, 4, 05. 126
Abdomen, parts of the. 126
Abdominal endosternites, 142
Abdominal sclerites, 128
Acacesia, 447, $oq

foliata, 510
Acanthophrynus coronalus, 20
Acarina. 13. 81
Accessory claws, 124
Acrosoma, 514
Adelosimus, 352
Adipose tissue, 157
Admestina. ''68, 679

tibialis. 67Q
Aeronautic spiders, 213
Afterspinnen. 53
Agassa. 668. 687

cyanea, 687
Agelena, 167, 392. 584, 383

nan'ia, no, 210. $86
Agelenida?, 582

Agelenida. table of genera of the, 583
Agroeca, 572. $74

minuta, 373

ornala. $74

pralensis, $74
Ala? of the guide, 131
Alary muscles. 1 51
Aliatypus. 249, 231

californicus. 231
Alimentary canal. 152
Alimentary tubules, 156
Allocosa, 621. 64$

funerea, 646

nm tuabunda, 646, 647

ptirva, 646

rugosa, 646
Alveolus, 108
Amaurobius, 164. 167. 274. 275, 276

americanus. 27Q

bennetti. 277

fernx. 278

Amblyocorcnum, 236, 240

lalpa. 240
Ambushing spiders. 186
Ammotrecha, 36. 38

californica, 38

cuba, 3Q

peninsukma, 38
Anal sternite. 54
Anelli of the subtegulum, 119
A nelosimus, 55a
I if. ylorrhams hirsvtum, 368
Anthrohia, 368. 375. _;~~

mamnwulhiti. 377
Antroduttus unicolor, 249
.1 nuroctonus, 30

phteodactylus, 30
Anyphana, 360

gracilis, 361
Anyphxninx, 559; table, 560
Anus. 136
Aorta. 149. 150

Apical sclerite of the embolus, 120
Apical ilivisi m oi the bulb, log, 112
Apodemes, 141

Appolophants, 342, $4$

texarta. 543
Aponeurotic plates, 142
Aposlenus, 572, 374

aculus, 374

cinctipes. $74
A ptostichus. 236, 241

aliimarius, 241

clathratus, 241

stanfordianus, 241
Aquatic spider. Argyrcinela aquatica, 582
Arachnida. 3. 8. 9

Arachnida. table of the orders of the, 12
Aranea, 446, 447, 467; type of palpus, 114

angulata, 460

cavatica. 469, 470

corticaria, 472

displicala. 4Q4

frondosa, 114. 485, 486, 487; palpus of, 115

gemma, 132. 468, 472

gigas, 190. 475; palpus of, 118

gi°as compicellata, 476

mi tiala, 474

nordmanni. 469, 470

ocellata, 486, 480; palpus of, 115

pegnia. 494

sericaia, 485, 486

sihalica. 470

thaddfus, 4Q0; retreat of. 206

Irifolium, 210. 475, 47Q

Irifolium candicans, 484
Araneas, the large angulate. 468

the large round-shouldered, 474

the smaller angulate. 472

the smaller round-shouldered, 490

the three house, 484
Aranes. 39
Araneida, 13, 3g, 218
Araneina-. 401. 443; table. 444
An-as of the bead, 98
Ariadna, 299. 300

bicolor, 300
Ariamncs, 334, 336

ficlilius, 337
Argyroses. 187. 332, 333, 334, 338

ntphil<r.

trtgonum, 16S. 210, 338; comb of, 332
Argiope, 434, //j

argenlata, .;/;
Argiopidte, 400; table. 400
Argiopuue, 433. 401
Axgiopoidea, 257
Arctium, 1 2 1

Arteries, lateral abdominal, 140. isr
Artery, caudal, 1 )0, 1 <;i
Arthropod a. 3

Arthropods, table of classes of, 8
Articular sclerite, 102 <

Asagcna. 334, 335, 362

americana, ;o/
A rtemnus, 0, i<>

elongatus, 40
Atriolum, 13a
Attachment <!NUs. 188
Attidte, i;(. iga, :oS. 661; table, 664
At 1 nl.i I issidentati, 063

I I

Index

Attidae Pluridentati, 663
Attidae Unidentati, 663
Atypical tarantulas, 252
Atypidae, 252
Atypoides, 230, 249, 2$o

riversi, 250
Atypus, 159, 160, 234, 252, 253

abbotti, 253

bicolor, no, 256

milberti, 253

piceus, 256
Avicularia, 242, 246

avicularia, 185

calif or nica, 246
Aviculariidae, 229
Aviculariinae, 230, 231
Avicularioidea, 228
Azilia, 417, 425

vagepicta, 425

Babesia bovis, go

Bacilli, 162

Ballus, 664, 666, 671

youngii, 671
Banana Spider, the, 552
Banded Garden Spider, 438
Basal division of the bulb, 109
Basal spot of the chelicera, 100
Basement membrane, 137, 139
Basilica spider, the, 417
Balhyphanles, 376, 378
concolor, 379

nigrinus, 379
Bdella peregrina, 81
Bdellidae, 87
Beak, of mites, 83
Beautiful leucauge, the, 422
Beetle mites, 91
Bcllinda, 336
Bird-spider, the, 185
Bird-spiders, 230
Blackheads, 94
Blolhrus, si, 52

californicus, 52
Body-wall, 137
Bolyphantes bucculenta, 390
Book -lungs. 145, 146
Boophilus, 89

annulalus, 8q
Bothriocyrlum, 235, 238

californicum, 238
Bowl and doily spider, the, 386
Brachybothriinae, 230, 231, 248
Brachybolhrium, 249

accentuatum, 250
Bradiythele, 247

longitarsis, 248

theveneti, 248
Bridge, the, 196
Brain, 160
Broleas, 29

alleni, 29
Bryobia pratensis, 88
Buthidae, 25
Buthinae, 25, 26

Caddo, 6s, 68

agilis, 68

boo pis, 68
Caeca. 156
Caecal ring, 156
Calamistrum, 12s
Callilepis, 310, 321

imbecilla, 322
Camerostoma, of mites, 83
Capitulum, of mites, 83
Caponiidae, 145
Carapace. 95

Cardiac ligaments, 149, ISI
Carepalxis tuberculifera, 448

Castianeira, $77
cingulata, 578
descripta, 578
longipalpus, $79
Cattle tick, 89
Centipedes, 6

Central nervous system, 160
Centrums, 25, 27
carolinianus, 27
exilic auda, 27
gracilis, 28
hentzi, 27
margariialus, 28
nigrescens, 27
lestaceus, 28
Cephalothorax. 4, 95
Ceraticelus fissiceps, 371
Ccraticelus latabilis, 371
Ceratinops, 367
Ceratinopsis interpres, 374
Cercidia, 455
funcbris, 4$$
prominens, 455
Cervical groove, 95
Cesonia, 310, 319

bilineata, 320
Chactidoe, 25, 29
Chela, 12
Chelanops, 46, 47
acuminatus, 49
affinis, 48
arhonensis , 48
dentatus, 47
dorsal is, 48
florid re, 4Q
grossus, 47
latimanus, 48
lalus, 49
morosus, 48
oblongus, 47
pallidus, 48
pal lipes, 48
sanborni, 48
lexanus, 49
tristis, 48
tumidus, 48
valid us, 48
virginica, 48
Chelate, 12
Chelate chelicerae, 102
Chelicerae, n, 99
Chelifer, 45, 46
biseriatum, 47
cancroides, 47
floridanus, 46
hubbardi, 47
mirabilis, 46
muricatus, 46
scabrisculus, 46
Cheliferidae, 44, 45
Cheliferinae, 45
Chemmis, 572, $73

unicolor, 574
Chernetidae. 39
Chilopoda. 6, 8
Chiracanthium, 56s, 5^9
albens, 571
incluswm, 569
Chitin, 138
Chorizomma, 584, 596

californica, 596
Chrysso, 336
Chthoniinae, 51
Chthonius, 51, 52
ceecus, $2
longipalpus, $3
moeslus, 53
packardi, 52
pennsyhanicus, S3
spinosus, 52

712

Index

Circulatory system, 148
CicuHna, 584- 505

arcuata, 396
Clavis, 112

Claw of the chelicera, 100
Claws. 124
Cleobis, 38
(lover mite. 88
( 'lubiona, 167. 363; table, 566

abbotii, 366

canadensis, 566, 367

obesa, 566. 367

pallens, 566. 567

riparia, 566, 567

tibialis, 566, 369
Clubionidae. 557; table. 559
Clubioninae, 559, 560, 565; table, 565
Clubionids, the, 557
C'lypeus, 99
Cochlear, 132
Cocoon, 182
Calotes, 584, 393

fiilelis, SOS
Collecting, methods of, 178
Collecting outfit, 177
Coleosoma. 334. 361

floridana, 362
Colulus, 136

Comb-footed spiders, 330
Comb-like organs, 22
Comedones, 94
Commensal spiders, 187
Complete orbs, 193
Conductor of the embolus, no, 112
Connate type of embolus, 119
Coras, 584, 592

medicinalis, 592
Coriarachne. 524, S31

brunneipes, 531

floridana, $31

versicolor, 331
Corinninas, 560, 580; table, 581
Cork type of trap-door, 233
Cornea. 161

Corneal hypodermis, 161, 162
Cosmetida, 59
Coxa. 104
Coxal glands, 170
Coxal spur, 114
Crab-spiders, the, 521
Cribellum, 132, 136
Crustacea, 4, 8
Cruslulina, 336, 339

guttata. 360
Cryphoeca, 584. 597

monlana, $97

peckhami, 597
Ctenidae, SSS; table, 556
Ctenizinae, 230, 231
( 'tenus, 336

hibernalis, 536

punctulalus, 556
Cupientmts, 556, 337

sallei. 337
Cuticula. 137, 138, 139

moulting of the, 183
Cuticular appendages, 139
Cyboeus, 383, 383

giganteus. 385
Cyclocosmia, 235, 237

iruncata, 237
Cyclosa, 444, 450

bifurca. 450, 453; egg-sacs of, 208

conic a, 431

caroli, 450. 433

turbinala. 45 r . 434

walckena-ri, 450. 454
Cymbium, 108, 112
Cynorta, 39

bimaculata, 60

Cynorta, ornata, 60

sayii, 60
Cyphophthalmi, 58

Daddy-long-legs, 53
Dancing madness, 620
Datames, 36
Deinopids, 273
Dcinopis, 273

spinosus, 273
Delorrhips unicornis, 372
Demodecidae, 94
Demodex. 94

follitulorum. 94
Demodicoidea, 86, 93
Dendrolasma, 79, 80

mirabilis, 81
Dcndryplmntcs. 666, 668, 684

capitatus, 686

militaris, 683
Dermanyssus gaUitue, 90
Development of spiders, 182
Dii tyna, 21 :. 275, 280

foliacea, 284

sublata. 281

volucripes. 284

volupis, 284
Dictynidx1, 274
Dictynids. 274
Dictyolatlius maculala, 280
Diguetia, 303, 304

canities, 304
Diplocentrus. 28

lesueurii. 28

whilei, 28
Diplopoda, 4, 8
Diplurinae, 230, 231, 247
Dipcena. 334, 336

buccalis, 336

crassiventris. 337

lascivula, 356

nigra. 337
Distal haematodocha. ns
Diurnal eyes, 96. 166
Diverticula of the heart, 149, 150
Dolichognatha, 417, 423

tuberculata, 425
Dolomedes. 603, 60s, 607

albineus. 609

fimbriatus. 603

fontanus, 119, S99, 601, 602, 609

idoneus, 609

lanceolatus, 613

pinicola, 617

sexpunt talus, 602, 614

tenebrosus, 608

tenax, 616

triton. 616

urinalor, 602, 609

vernalis, 613
Domed orb. 105
Domestic-spider, the, 34s
Doubli- dour tvpe, 233
Dragline, 188
Drapetisca, 376, 380

alter and a. 380

socialis, 380
Drassida.-. ,*o8; table. 310
Drassids. 308
Drassinclla. in. n I

lepidus. 313

modesta, 315 ,

Drassodes, 311, 313

robustus, 313
Drassus, in, :i2

neila tus, jia
/' 1 > i palpus '>f 100

/'■■ !i r.i. 1 ^i). 200
i ntcr r it, 1. J,j,i

lis aderidc, 17.;, 19-', 198

7»3

Index

Dysderids, 298

Ebo, 542, 547
latithorax, 547
mexicana, 547
oblongus, 547
Egg-sac, 182

in rolled leaf, 213
life within the, 182
maker unknown, 211
Egg-sacs, silk of the, 192
Eilica, 311, 318

bicolor, 319
Ejaculatory duct, 108
Embolic subdivision, 113
Embolus, 108, no

different types of, 119
Empodium, 124
Endite, n, 104
Endoskeleton, 141

Endosternite of the cephalothorax, 141
Enoplognalha, 335- 364
marmorala. 364
rugosa, 364
tecta, 364
Epeira, 400, 467
alba, 450
t initial a. 4S4
cinerea, 472
cophinaria, 436
domkiliorum, 498
foliata, 489
globosa, 49s
hortorum, 424
insularis, 479
mitrata, 517
parvuia, 512
paligiata, 490
prompta, 512
riparia, 436
sclopetaria, 487
scutulata, 474
spinea, 514
strix, 489
Iriaranea, 495
trivitlata, 498
vertebrata, 502
Epeiridae. 400

Epeiras. the three house, 485
Epicardiac ligaments, 151
Epigastric furrow, 128
Epigastric plates, 132
Epigastrium, 128
Epipharynx, 102, 153
Episinus, 333, 342

truncatus, 342^
Epistoma, of mites, 83
Epigyna, different types of, 130
Epigynum, 129
Eremobates, 36
calif ornica, 37
cinerea, 37
formicaria. 37
formidabilis, 37
magna, 37
pallipes. 37
putnami, 37
sulphurea, 36
Erigone autumnalis, 373
Erigonids, 370
Erigoninae, 370
Erineum, 94

Eriophora, 445. 446, 447, 503
bivariolala, 504

circulata. 11 s. Sr4.m palpus of, 117
Eriophyes pyri. 93
Eriophyidce, 83, 93
Ero, 519, 520

furcata, 210, 520
Eucta, 407, 415

Eucta, caudata, 415
Eugnatha, 410, 414
Euophrys, 666, 675
cruciatus, 675
monadnock, 675
Eupodoidea, 87
Eurybunus, 67, 72
brunneus, 72
formosus, 72
spinosus, 72
Euryopis, 333, 334, 343
argentea, 344
funebris, 344
quinquemaculata, 344
scriptipes, 344
Eurypelma, 242, 243
calijornicum, 244, 245
helliw. 244, 245
henlzii, 243, 245
marxi, 244, 245
rusticum, 244. 245
sleindachneri, 244, 245
Eustala, 447, 310

anaslera, 511
Euty chides, 235, 240

versicolor, 240
Evaprus, 247, 248

rubrigularis, 248
Exocardiac ligaments, 151
External anatomy of spiders, 95
Eye-capsule, 161, 163
Eye-muscle, 167
Eye-space, 98
Eyes, 10, 96, 161

Face, 99

Falces, 100

Fasciculi unguiculares, 125

Fat-body, 155, 157

Faucheurs, 53

Fecal crystals, 157

Femoral groove, 114

Femur, 104

Filistata, 289, 201

hibemalis, 108, 20T
Filistata type of palpus, 108
Filistatidae, 289
Filmy dome spider, the, 390
Flagellum, 33, 41
Folding-door tarantulas, 230, 248
Foliate spider, the, 487
Folium, 128
Food of spiders. 185
Fore-intestine, ir-2, 153
Foundation lines, 197
Four-lunged true spiders, 257
Free zone, 203
Front, 99

Fronlinella communis, 388
Fuentes, 664

lineatus, 664

tceniola, 664
Fundus, 108

Funnel-web spiders, the, 582
Funnel-webs, 193
Funnel-web tarantulas, 230, 247
Furrow of the chelicera, 100
Furrow of the posterior spiracle, 128

Galea, 40
Galeodea, 32
Galeodes arabs, 35
Gall-mites, 93
Gamasid mites, 90, 91
Gamasidae, 91
Gamasoidea, 86, 90
Gamasomorpha, 302, 303

floridana, 303
Gamasus, 83
Garden spiders, the, 433

Index

Gary pus. 46. 49

bicornis. 49

floridensis. fg

granulatus. 30
Gasteracantha. 312

cancriformis, 513
Gasteracanthinx, 401, 512; table, 51*
Gaucelmus, 336

auguslinus. 425
Gayenna, 560, 362; table. 562

celer. 562

pcctorosa. 562. 563

saltabunda. 562, 363
Gea. 434, 443

heptagon. 443
Generalized types of palpi. 106
Genital bulb. 108
Genital stcrnite. 54
Giant crab-spiders, the. 551
Glands of spiders. 169

aciniform or berry-shaped. 171

aggregate or treeform. 174

ampullate or bellied, 172

cribcllum. 174

cylindrical. 173

lobed. 174

of the spermathecx, 160

poison. 170

pyriform or pear-shaped, 172
Glenngnatha. 407, 408

emertoni, 408
Glohipcs. 66, 71

spinulatus, 71
Glyptocranium, 444, 448

bisarratum. 448

cornigerum. 448
Gnaphosa. 310. 320

giganlea. 320

sericata, 32 r
Grab for gray-beards. 53
Grass-spider, the. 586
Grate-form tapetum, 165
Grocers' itch. 02
Groups of North American families of spiders,

221
Guide, 131

Habroccstum, 669, 687

pulex. 687
Hackled bands, igo

of Amaurobius. 27$

of Filistata. 296
Badrobunus, 67, 7$

grandis, 76

marulosus, 76
Badrurus, 30, 32

hirsvtus, 32
Hamatodocha, 112
Hahnia. 584, 597

agilis. 598

lincrea. 598
Hairs, 139
Halacandx, 88
llamataliva. 6s8, 66a

grisca. 660
Hammock spider, the, 394
Hand, 23
Harvcstmen. 53
Harvest-mites, 87, 88
Harvest-spiders, 53
Hay-makers, 53
Head, 95

Heart, 147. 148, 1 ig
Hebestatis tkeieneti, 237
Hemerotncka, 36. 37

califomico, (5

Hrntzia. 410. ;/-

basilica, 105

Bcrpyllus. 311. 318
ccclesiasticus, 318

Berpyllw:. vasifer, 318
Beteropoda. 214, $52

venaloria. 332
Heteropodide, 551; table, 552
Hexapoda. 6, 8
Uexura. ,230 231

picea. 252
Hcxurinx. 230. 231, 251
Ililkc. 57 a, 573

Irivitlala, 575
Hind-intestine. 152, 156
Hislagonia, 366

rostrata. 366
Histagoniex, 336. 366
HomaUmyckus, 323, 324

selenopoides. 323
Bomolophus, 66, 71

biceps. 71
Hub. 199
Byctia, 667, 677

bina. 677

pikei, 677

rnbusta. 677
Hydrachnidx. 88. 89
Hydrachnoidea, 86, 88
Hypocardiac ligaments. 151
Bypochilus. 239

thorelli. 108. no, 258,259
Hypochilida-. t$f
Hypopharynx. 1 > ^
Hypodermis. 137, 138

corneal. 162
Hypopodium. 125
Hypopus. of mites. 85
Hypostoma, of mites, 83
Byptiotes, 263, 270

cavalus, 270

Ictus, 667. 673

elegans. 673

hartii, 67 1

rimilis, 673

wickhamil, 664
Ideobisium, 30

rufulum, 50

theveneti, 31
Ideobisiidx. 45, 50
Idiondla formosa, 368
Ideoroncus, \>. 31

obscurus, 51
Incomplete orb. 195
Intermediate types of palpi, no
Internal anatomy of spiders, 137
Intima. 152
Iris. 165

Irregular nets. 10?

Irregular webs with hackled bands, 196
Ischyropsalidx, 65. 76
Isometrus, 25, 26

m<h ulafus, 26
Itch-mites, 81, 92
Ixodes, 83
Ixodoidea, 86, 89

Jumping-spiders, t!«.e, 661

Kaira, 11 1. fS°

ts°

Katadysas pumilus, ^:\
a 0 m nia, 9, 15

floretu i<r, 1 ; ,

wheeteri, 1
Koeneniidie, 1 >
Krohn's glands, openings of, 55

Labium. 102
of mites. 83

Laboratory equipment, 170
Labulla, ?:'>.
aUioculota

71?

Index

Labyrinth Spider, the, 462
Lacinius, 66, 70

ohioensis, 70

texanus, 70
Laniatores, 59
Larinia. 446, 507

borealis, 308

directa, 508

famulatoria, 509
Lateral condyle of the chelicera, 100
Lateral pores, 55
Lateral sclerites, 132
Lateral subterminal apophysis, 113, 115
Lathy s, 27s, 279

foxii, 27Q

metadata, 280
Lalrodecius, 333, 334, 357

mactans, 214, 357

geometricus, 339
Lattice-spider, the, 490
Lechytia, 51. 53

pacific a, 53
Leg formulae, 126
Leiobunum, 67, 73

bicolor, 7$

bimaculatum, 74

calcar, 73

crassipalpis, 74

exilipcs. 73

flavum, 7S

formosum, 56, 74

nigripes, 74

nigropalpi, 73

longipes, 74

politum, 57, 75

speciosum, 7$

tovinsendi, 74

ventricosum, 7$

verrucosum, 75

vittalum, 74
Lenti.Ten. 162
Lephtkyphantes, 376, 379

minutus, 120, 380

ncbulosus, 380
Lcplobunus, 67, 71

borealis, 72

calif ornicus, 72
Leptoncta, 307

californica, 307
Leptonetida?, 307
Leptonetids, 307
Lcucauge, 416, 421

venusla, 422
Lcuronychus, 67, 73

pacificus, 73

parvulus, 73
Life of spiders, 177
Limulus, 7

polyphemus, 7
Linyphia, 174, 376, 385

communis, 386

insignis, 388

lineala, 388

litigiosa, 392

marginata, 390

phrygiana, 394

pusilla, 398
Linyphia type of palpus. IT2
Linyphiida?, 174. 368; table, 370
Linyphiids, 374

Linyphiinae, 370, 374; table, 37s
Linyphiella, 385

variabilis, 385
Liocraninaa, 559; table, 571
Liocranoides, 572, 57$

unicolor, 375
Liphislius, 134, 218, 220
Liphistiidae, 9S
Li/hyphanles, 334, 362

corollatus, 362

Lithyphanles, fulvus, 362

Lorum of the pedicel, 127

Lost atypus, 256

Loxosceles, 108, 303 304; palpus of, 109

rujescens, 303

unicolor, 305
Lunate plate, 115
Lung-slits, 128, 129
Lutica, 323

maculata, 323
Lycosa, 167, 618, 622; table, 636

albohastata, 631

apicata, 629

arenicola, 633

aspersa, 627, 634

avara. 629, 632, 640

beanii, 626

carolinensis, 623, 628, 629, 636

cinerea, 627, 641

coloradensis, 626

communis, 637

erralica. 618, 631, 632, 637

falifcra. 626, 636

fioridiana, 627, 630

frondicola, 630, 632, 638

grand is, 627, 628

gulosa, 631, 639

helluo, 165, 625, 628, 633

kochii, 626, 639

lenta, 629

modes/a. 630, 632, 639

nidicola, 633

nidifex, 633

permunda, 627 628

pic tills, 631, 632, 640

pikei, 131, 626, 633

pratensis, 630, 632, 638

punctulala. 628, 637

quinaria, 629

riparia, 627, 633

rubicunda, 627, 640

scutulata, 628, 637

tarenlula, 228

triton, 616
Lycosida:, 618; table, 620
Lynx-spiders, the 657
Lyriform organs, 125, 168
Lyssomanes, 66r, 664, 669

viridis, 669

"'Made to order" webs, 180
Maria, 664, 667, 694

vittata. 694
Malpighian vessels, 157
Mandibles, 100
Mar gar opus annulatus, 90
Mangora, 446, 304

gibber osa, 303

maculata, 307

placida, 303
Marpissa, 667, 678

californica, 678

melanognathus, 678

undala, 678
Marxia, 445. 433

mcesla, 437

stellata. 436
Masticatory ridges, n
Masligoproctus giganteus, 19
Maxilla?, 104
Maypacius. 603

floridanus, 603
Mecostethi, 58
Median apophysis, 112
Median ocular area, 98
Mesal subterminal apophysis, 115
Mcgamyrmecion, 311, 314

californicum, 314
Mrriola, 581, 582

decepta, 582

7l6

Ind

Meshed hub, 199
Mesosoma. 66, 76

nigrum, 76
Mesothehe, 218
Mela, 167, .(i7, jiq

menardii, 210, 41 g
Melat yrba, 66 • . 667. 6q4

Ueniola, 694
Melazygia, 1 is. 01

mttfaice, 161
Metepeira, / /ft, 462

labyrinthea, 162
Metids, .(i.i
Metinae, 101. 415; table, 416

Mclarxiiipr. / ;;, 438
fasciata, ifi
transversa, 1/1
trifaciata, rg8, 210, 438
Methods of study, 177
M it aria. 577. $80

longipes, 580
M« ariinae, 559, 577
Micrathena, 512. =,14
gracilis, $16
maculala. $17
r.eduvh >ia. 117
tagittata, $14
Microdipasna, 367
Micrommata pinicola, 617
Micrommata undata, 607
Mil rtmeta, .376, 378
unimacidata. 378
Microthelyphonida. 13
Micro-whip-scorpions, 13
Middle division of the bulb, 109, 112
Middle bsematodocha, 115
Mid-intestine, 152, 155
Millipedes, 4

1/ imrtus. iiQ

inter Jector, gig

syllepsii us, $20

Mimetidx, 518; table, 519

Minn-lids, the, 518

Miranda. 187. / , •/

aurantia, 182. 209, 210, 434
Misumena, 167, 224, 525

aleatoria, 527

vatia, $26
Misumeninae, 523; table, 524
Misumessus, ^24, 520

asperatus, 5 ;<>
Mites, 1 ,'. 81
Mitotus, 66. 6g
arnii »%. 60

dorsalis, ~n

montanus, 70
Modisimus, 326, 127

texanus, 127
Motherhood of spiders, 208
Mouth 104

M u ' le impressions, 127
Mum les of the abdomen, 1 1 1

of the appendages, 1 1 )

of the body-wall r 1 j

of 1 he sucking stomach, 1 1 1
VI 'I 1 ill. 11 sj tern, 142
If 3 :ale, 2 28
MygalomorphtB, 228
1/ yriapoda, 6
1/ yrmari hne, 669. 672

■ In
\! yrmei iophila. 235, 2 ;c>

atkinsoni, 3 /<>

foliata, 2

Huvia'ilis, 2 jg
\! • mena

Nemastoma, 77. 78
dasyi nemon, 78

inops. 78

Nemastoma, modcsium. 78

troglodytes, 78
Nemastomatidse, 65, 77
Neon. 667, 675

nrlii, 675
Neoscona, 447, 495

arabesca, i>>-

l" njamina, 497, 408

oaxacensis, 496, 497, $02

Pralensis, 496, 497, 502

vulgaris, 407. 500
Neoihanes pallidus, 287
Nephila. 173, 42*5

clavipes, 426

plumipes, 428
Nrpliilintr. 401, 426
Nericne. 376, j&4

clathrata. 384

coccinea, ,v;
Nervous system, 160, 161
Neslirus. 417. )j j

augustinus, 42$

cartcri. 42 /
cavicola. 42$

pallidas, jj 1
Nests of spiders, 206, 234

Net-bllildlng spielers, 187

Nidivalvata marxii, 240
\"t turnal eyes, 96, 166

Notched zone, [go

Nursery-web Weavers, the, 598

Objsiidae, 45, 51
Obisiinae, si
Obisium. 43, ,-;

brunneum, %2

carolinensis, 52

cavicola. $2

macilentum, $2

parvulum, $2
Ocular quadrangle, 99, 661
Ocular tubercle, 99
Ochyrocera, 307, 308

pacifica, 308
(Ecobiida:, 287
CEcobius. 287. 288
floridana jSij

parietalis, 288
(Edothorax monti/crus, 372

probata, c I

QSsophagus, 1 s t
Ogre-faced spiders, 273

Oligolophus, 66, 70

pi, lus. ~n
Olios. 552. ,->/

abnormis, SSS

fas, i, id.it us, iff
Olpium \i<, jo

1 1 ',■ m
Oniscids, 1
Onondaga, 66 1. 007, 69$

lineata, 606
I >nw hium, 1 2 1
( tonopidc, ,302
1 1, inopids, 302

Openings of the epigynum, 1.50
Opiliones s;

Opistlhh .Itltlllls. 28, 20
dalUS, 2Q

Opisthoi h< 1.1 . 220

( ipti, rod, 1 "

1 »i d in in ,,1 ni,t,-, 83 '

i- garden spider, the, 1 u

< irl, and irregular ni I

< Irb \\i-.i\,-r- the, 400

Orb-webs, 193, 106

■
sahabunda, ;"-*
saltii -

< »rgan oi 1 1 te and smell, 160

717

Index

Organs of touch, 169
Oribatid mites, 91
Oribatidce, 91
Oribatoidea, 85, 86, 91
Ortholasma, 7g

pic ti pes, 79

rugosa, 80
Ostia of the heart, 149, 150
Ovaries, 158, 159
Oviducts, 158, 159
Ovipositor, 132
Oxyopes, 658, 6SQ

cinerea, 660

rufipes,''66o

sallicus, 660

scalaris, 660
Oxyopida?. 657; table, 658
Oxyplila. 524 330

conspurcala, 331

Packygnalha, no, 159, 406, 407

brevis, 408
Pachylomerus, 235, 236

audouinii, 236

theveneti, 237

turns, 237
Paired claws, 124
Pairing of spiders. 207
Palaeostracha, 7, 8
Palmula, 124
Palpal organ, 158
Palpatorcs, 65
Palpigradi, 13
Palpus, 10;;, 106, 121
Paracymbium, 112
Pardosa, 167, 621, 630; table, 651

albopalclla. 654

annulate., 654

emerloni. 651, 653, 657

grxnlandica, 651, 653. 656

lapidicina, 165, 651, 653, 635

milvina, 652, 653

minima, 634

modica, 651, 636

modica brunnea, 637

nigropalpis, 63$

Pallida, 657

saxatilis, 652, 633

sternalis. 651, 653, 633

xerampelina, 651, 636
Parmula, 132, 375
Pars cephalica, 95
Pars pendula, 109, 120
Pars thoracica, 95
Patella, 104
Pear-leaf blister, 93
Peckhamia, 664, 669

americana, 700

picata, 699

scnrpiona, 699
Pedanostethus, 363

riparius, 363
Pedicel. 127
Pectines, 22
Pediculoides, 92
Pedanostethus, 336
Pedipalpida, 13, 16
Pedipalpi, 16
Pedipalps. n, 82, 104
Pellenes, 669, 688

agilis. 68 Q

borealis, 689

coronatus, 689, 69^

hoyi. 689. 691

peregrinus. 689. 602

splendens, 689. 602
Pericardial cavity, 150, 151
Pericardium, 150, 151
Peritoneal layer, 155
Petiole, 109

Peucctia. 638

viridans, 638
Phalangida, 13, 53
Phalangides, 53
Phalangiidae, 65
Phalangita, S3
Phalangium, 66, 6g

cinereum, 6g

longipalpis, 6q
Phalangodes, 61, 64

armala, 64
Phalangodidae. 59, 61
Phanetta, 375, 377

sublerranea, 377
Pharyngeal gland, 154
Pharynx, 153
Phidippus, 668, 680, 684

audax, 681

claras, 681, 683

insolens, 680, 681, 683

mineatus, 681, 684

mystaceus, 681, 684

purpuratus, 681, 683

variegatus, 681, 682

whitmanii. 6S0, 681, 682
Philodrominae. 523, 541; table, 542
Philodromoides. 542, 545

prataritz, 545
Philodromus, 542, 543

minulus, 344

ornatus, 343

pernix, 344
Phlegmacera, 77

bryantii, 78

cavicolens, 78

occidentale, 78
Phlegra. 666, 688

leopardus, 688
Pholcida?, 325; table, 326
Pholcids, 325
Pholcus, 167, 326, 328

phalangioides, 328
Phohammateae, 336, 367
Pholcophnra, 327, 32 g

americana, 32g
Photographing, methods of, 180, 181
Phrurolithus, 571, 376

alarius, 376
Phrynidae, 19
Physocyclus, 327, 32Q

glabosus, 329
Pigment cells, 165
Pirata, 621, 631, 641; table, 642

aspirans, 642, 643

febriculosus, 643. 645

humicolus. 642, 644

insularis, 643, 643

marxi. 642, 644

minulus, 642, 643

mantanus, 131, 642, 644

piraticus, 643

pira'icus utahcnsis, 642
Pisaurid type of palpus. 118
Pisaurida?, 598; table, 605
Pisaurina, 605, 607

mira, sg9, 607
Plagiostethi, 58, 64
Plagula. 127
Plantula, 124
Platform spider, the, 398
Plectana, 436
Plectreurys, 303, 304

castanea, 304

trislis. 304
Plesiometci, 4 16, 424

argyra. 424
Plexippus. 668. (5?.;

paykullii, 693
Pmcuochroa, 311, 315

minuta, 316

718

Index

Pcecilo liroa. montana, 315

pacifica, 315
Poison eland 170
Postabdomen C28
Postbai illai eyes, 97
Post-retinal membrane. 163
Poultry, mite infesting, qo
Prey, means of destroying the, 187
Process of the finger, 40
Procurved. 08
Pro/liiHii foxii, 270
Prodidomidse, 308
mats-. 308

rutu
Pi •■ 373

Prololapus. 65. 67

singulari

tuber culalus , 68
Pseudoscorpiones, 39
Pseudoscorpionida, 13. 39
Pseudoscorpions. 39
Pseudo-spiders, 5 ;
r 11. 1 1 tigmatic organs of mites, 91
h trus, $27

pullulus,
Pteroptus, 83

I'ulm inary veins. 1^0, 151
PulviUus. 12 t
Purse-web spider, 253

Quadrangle of the posterior eyes, 99

Racrjiiet-orgajis, 34

Radii, 197

Radix, 1 1 i

Rake of the chelicera. 100

Ram's-horn organs, 43

Ray-formed orb-web, 195

Ray-spider Family, the, 401

Receptaculum seminis. 108

Rectum. 157

Recurved. 98

Red bugs, 88

Red-spiders, 87

Reproduction of lost organs, 185

Reproductive organs, 10, 158

Reservoir. 108

Respiratory organs, 10, 145

R tina. i'n . 162

Retinacula. 1 1 *,

Rhechoslica. 242

texense, 2 / )
Ricinul -i. 12
Rostrum, of mites, 83

of spiders, 102
Runcinia, 529

Saltirus. 666. 676

J lli' US, 676

Sarcoptoidea S7, 92
S iri opd

Sarcoptcs
Sassacus, 669. 6
papenhoci. 686
$75

647; table 648
bilineata, 648
ocreala, 648
salliitrix. 6 f8

Sclerobunus, 6i

brunneus, 6 j

robuslus, 6 <
Scoloderus. 444, /;-

tuber culiferus. 1 r
S< opula, 100. 1

of the chelicera, 100

of 1 he pedipalp, 105

of the tarsi, 125

pUS, [12

1] pionida 1 J, 21
Si orpionidse, .'4. 28
I lions, -M

1I1 ol familie ■ of, 24
ithys. 27 ;
pallidus, 287
Si otol i):-in. in . 62
brunnea, 62. 63
• rnii a. 62

63
spinijera, 62
Scytodes, 303. 306

inn

306

"li I.e. 303
lid-. 303

uner, 216
100
inter, 41
Si 'i 59, 160. 299, 300

pa, i

Selenopi I.e. 550
Seleiwps. 330
:us, 330
Semichelal :, 1 2
Seminal vesicle. 158
iio. 311)

•IQ

ntris, ;itj
la, 40. 105

t 19
Shamro it spider, the. 479
Sheep-dip, 93
92

Sheet and irregul ;r net webs, 196
Sheeted hub, [9 >
Sheet-webs, 10 >

:rs, 368
Shep r 1, vj

Shizonol id

|i 1 >•

the 592
Silk glands, i j
Silk of spiders
Silk spid :rs, the
Silvered uml n spi ler the, 443
Singa. 4 1 i

prate tis is, 02

trim a' 1. \(u

SittL u <''■:

p .'' 1 Iris, 676
Smell, in i
Solifu
Solpugida, it. 32

tpini

I typ a "f palpi, 1 1 1
[60 »

1 <>
forrauhe

1 . 1

176

Spin!'

719

Index

Spintharus.flavidus. 341
bpiny-bellied spiders, the, 512
Spiracles. 128
Spiral guy-line, 202
Spiral muscle, 112
Stabilimentum, 203

of Metargiope, 400
Steatoda. 174. 334. 360

borealis, 333- i6°
Stercoral pocket, IS7
Stipes. 113
Stoidis, 666, 674

aurata, 675
Stomodaeum, 153
Storena. 323. 324

americana, 324
Stridulating organs, 130

of the mouth-parts, 106

Stylet, 40 ,

Subcesophageal ganglion, 160
Subtegulum. 112
Sucking stomach. 153. 154
Superciliary ridge, 23
Suture, 139
Swathing band. 189
Swathing film. 189
Synema, 524, 54°

bicolor, 541

obscura, 54 T

parvula, 54°
Synemosyna. 664, 669, 071

formica, 672
Syrisca. 322
Syspira, 572

pallida, 572

Table of families of spiders, 2:2
Tailed whip-scorpions. 18
Tailless whip-scorpions. 19
Tapetum, 161. 103. 104
Tapinauchenius, 242, 240
ccrrulescens. 246
texensis, 246
Tapinopa, 376. 399

bilincata, 399
Tarantism. 228
Tarantula. 20
fusimana, 20
marginemaculata, 21
palm a la. 20
whitei. 20
Tarantula type of palpus, 109
Tarantulas, 228
Tarantulida\ 17. 19
Tarentula, 620
Tarsus, 104. »4
Talavera, 668, 674

minuta, 674
Tapinopa. 3Q9
bilincata, 399
Taracus, 76
packardi. 77
pall i pes, 77
spinosus, 76
Taste, organs of, 169
Tegcnaria. 584. 592, 593

derhami, S93
Tegulum. 112
Teminius, 310, 322
affinis, 323
continenlalis, 323
nigriceps. 323
Tenent hairs, 125
Tergum of the thorax, 121
Terminal apophysis. 113. US
Terminal tenent hairs, 125
Testes and their ducts, 15°

Tetrablemma. 95 »

Tetragnatha, 159. 160, 210, 212, 407, 4"«
banksi, 410

Tetragnatha, elongata, 410, 41*
extensa, 410, 41 1
grallalor, 411
laboriosa, 406, 410, 411
pallidula. 410. 411, 4l5
straminea._ 410, 411, 4< 4'4
vermijormis, 310, 411x4
Tetragnathids. 405 ,

Tetragnathins, 401. 4°5; table, 400
Tetranychida;. 87
Tctranychus telarius, 88
Teutana, 335. 361
triangulosa. 301
Thalamia floridani. 289
Thalamia parietalis, 289
Thanatidius, 605

dubius, 60S
Thanalus. 543- 5-P
coloralcnsis, 548
lycosoides, 348
Th'aumasia. 617
Thelyphonida;. 17- l8
Thelyphonus. 144
Theonoem, 33°- 367
Theridiidas, 174. 330; table. 333
Theridion, 167, 174. 335. 330, 344
dijfcrens, 352
eximius, 352
foliacea, 284
fordum, 346
frondeum, 168, 347
globnsjim, 348
kentuckyense. 349
murarium, 353
punctosparsum, 350
qualripunctatus, 1S6
rupicola, 347
spirale, 354

sludiosiim, 35° ... „„T

tepidariorum. 210, 299, 33°. 345, 421
unimaculatum. 349
zelotypum, 350
Theridiosoma, 210, 402

radiosa, 402
Theridiosomatma;, 4°°. 4°i
Theridula. 335- 354
opulenta, 355
quadri punctata, 355
spharula, 355
Thiodina, 664. 66g, 670
puerpera, 670
sylvana, 670
Third claw, 124
Thomisid type of palpus, 119
Thomisidse, 521; table, 523
Thomisus caudatus, 525
Thomisus vulgaris, 544
Thorax, 121
Tibellus, 543- 549
dultonii, 549
oblongus, 550
Tibia, 104
Ticks. So
Tick-fever, 89 _
Tilanceca amcricanvs, 279
Tiliotus, 556

calijomicus, 550
Tityus, 25, 27

Jloridanus, 27
Tmarus, 524

angulatus, 525
Tmeticus, 376, 377

armatus, 378
Touch, organs of, 169
Trabea. 621, 649

aurantiaca, 131- 040
Tracheal spiracles, 128, 129
Tracheal, sternite, 54
Trachelas, 167, 5$J
califomica, 581

720

Inde>

Tracheitis. Iranquilla. 381
Trachelocamptus robtratus, 372
Trachyrhinus, 67, 72

favosus, 72

marmoraius, 7 J

rracks of orb-weayers. 204
Transformations, r8 1
I rap-door spiders, 230. 231, 238
Trapline, 204
Triangle spider. 270
Triangular web, 196
Trichogen, 138
Trichopore, 138
Trilobites, 8

Trithyreus pentapcltis. 18
Trochanter. 104
Trochantin, 42
Troglohyphantes, 376. 382

cavcrnicolus. 383

incertus. 383
Troml idiidse, 88
Trombidium sericeum, 88
Trombidoidea, 87
Trogulidx. 65. 70
True spiders, the, 257
Trunk of the embolus. 120
Tubular trachea'. 147
Tutaculum. no. 523
Cypii al I >r ! • weavers, the, 443
Typical tarantulas. 220
Tyroglyphida:, 92

Ulesanis. 336. 356

amcricana. 356
Ulobl rida-, 262
Uloborids, 262
Uhborus. 263

americanus, 263. 264
ulatus, 268

plumipes. 264. 268
I'nca. 112

(Jncate, 12
Urate cells. 158
Urorlontts. 30

mordax, jo
Uroplcctes. 25. 26

mcxicanus, 26
Uropoda, 83
1 ' • 107

gracilis, 307
Uterus, 158. iso

Vagina, 158, 150
\ .1 1 defercntia, 158
Veins, pulmonary, 151
Vejovidse, 25. 29
Vejovis. 30. 31

boreus. u

carolinus. 32

Savus. u

mexicanus, ,'/
punclipalpi, ji
spinigerus, 32

Venom of spiders. 213
Venous circulation. 152
Verrucosa. 445. 463

arenaia. 4165
Visceral nervous system. 161

I silk of Aranea. 181
\ 1 rid spiral. 202
Viscid thread. 189
Visual cell. 162
Vitreous layer, 162
Vitreum. 162
Vulva, 132

Wagncriana. 445. 460

taurit ornis, 460
Wala. 666. 667. 67Q

palmar um. 664, 680

mi! rata. 680
Wandering spiders, the, t86. 55J
Warp, [92
Water-mites, 88
Webs of spiders, the types of, 193

Whip-scorpions, 13. 16

Willibaldia. ;,V;
Wind-scorpions, 35
Wixia, 446. 466

eclypa, 467
Wolf-spiders, the. 61b

Woof. 11)2

Xysticus. 119. 524. 5j3
•ms. 533
emerloni. 5 ,\;
Jernx. 522. $34
formosus, 334
guiosus 534
limhatus. 336
In tans. 336
ncrVOSUS, 338
quadrilinealus, 338
triguitatus, $38

Ztlotes. 311, 316

atcr. 316

frigidus, 317

rufulus. 316
Zilla. 113. fS7

atrica. \$a
arnica, 460

montana, 460

x-notata, 160
Zilla type of orb-web, 195
/ danidse, 323
/ dariids, 323
Zora, 57'

pumuus, S73
Zuninga, 672
Zygobailus. 664, 668. 6q6

beltinii. <

nervosus. ''07. 6q8

rvfipi . r>07

sexpumtatus . 697, 6q8

;-'

[■HE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS
GARDEN CITY, N. Y.

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

3 IDfla DDlflMl

nhent QL457.1.C73
The spider book;

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